-
X
TRANSACTIONS .^i
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911
VOL. XLIV
(New Issue)
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OP THE INSTITUTE
Issued 10th June, 1912
WELLINGTON, N.Z.
JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Weslky and Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London WO.
[After portrait in Kew Bulletin.
SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, O.M., F.R.S.
Frontispiece
OBITUARY.
SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, O.M., F.R.S.
11817-1911. >
Through the lamented death of Sir Joseph Hooker, the greatest of
British botanists, the New Zealand Institute has lost not only the
most illustrious and revered of its honorary members, but one whose
hand has laid an impress on New Zealand science never to be effaced.
Hooker's connection with New Zealand botany commenced so long
ago as the early summer of 1840, when, as naturalist to the famous
Antarctic Expedition under Sir James Ross, he explored botanically
the Auckland and Campbell Islands. How thoroughly this work was
conducted is evidenced bjr the fact that, notwithstanding subsequent
visits of several experienced botanists and one well-equipped scientific
expedition, only twenty-five additions, many of which are doubtless
extremely local, have been made to Hooker's original list of 124
species of vascular plants. As for the lower cryptogams (277 species),
they remain virtually as they were. Three months (August-November)
of the succeeding year were spent by Hooker at the Bay of Islands,
where he made a collection of about three hundred species, and gained
at the same time a first-hand acquaintance with a portion of the New
Zealand flora proper. Perhaps even more important was his meeting
Colenso, who, through contact with the brilliant young botanist, was
stirred up to that life-long enthusiastic devotion to science which yielded
such valuable results.
Immediately on the return of the Ross Expedition Hooker commenced
the study of his collections, and, notwithstanding their magnitude,
the first volume of the magnificent " Flora Antarctica," devoted to
the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands, appeared in 1844, and marked
the commencement of a new epoch in New Zealand botany.
The years 1853 to 1855 saw the publication of the " Flora Novae-
Zelandiae," a quarto work in two volumes similar to the " Flora
Antarctica," consisting of 729 pages and 130 coloured plates. In this
and the last-mentioned work the species are not merely described, but
their affinities and geographical distribution most thoroughly considered.
Further, the essay on the New Zealand flora which formed an intro-
duction to the " Flora Novae-Zelandiae " is a phytogeographic classic
of the highest excellence. Written presumably to educate the colonial
collector and to stimulate botanical research in the new colony, it
deals in a most searching manner with the origin and affinities of
the flora, and as a contribution to philosophical plant-geography has
never been excelled in its admirable marshalling of the facts, clear-
ness of style, moderation of tone, and carefully balanced conclusions.
Another portion of the essay, treating of the limits of species, their
dispersion and variation, is full of matter interesting even yet to a
present-day student of evolution.
iv Obituary.
Hooker's investigations in New Zealand botany extended far into the
"sixties," when his "Handbook of the New Zealand Flora" (1864-67)
appeared. This was no mere reproduction of his former works, for
many colonial collectors had been hard at work (Colenso, Travers,
Haast, Hector, Buchanan, &c), and a vast quantity of fresh material
awaited examination. Indeed, the task was one of no small magnitude,
and when the marvellous accuracy of the descriptions is considered it
is hard to believe the fact that they were drawn up from herbarium
material alone. Assuredly, well might Darwin exclaim, " Oh, my
heavens! to get up at second hand a New Zealand flora — that is work.''
How original the treatment was is shown by Hemsley's computation
that sixteen endemic genera and half the species described have the
affix "Hook, f."
The indebtedness of New Zealand science does not end with Hooker's
published work. To all serious investigators of the flora he was a
friend, guide, and counsellor. There is, indeed, no name of moment
in the later botany of the Dominion but is deeply indebted to Hooker's
influence and assistance, generously given.
Almost to the last did the great botanist feel keen interest in the
progress of knowledge in that far-off region where his spurs had been
won. Writing to the Council of the Canterbury branch of the Institute
on the 24th June, 1910, he said, in reference to the recently published
" Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand," " I was aware of the scientific
expedition to the Auckland and Campbell Islands organized in 1907,
and was looking anxiously for some records of its results." After
explaining that, of course, he was specially interested in the botany,
he adds, " There is really no section, biological and geological, which
I can afford to overlook."
Hooker's work on New Zealand botany, to which the above sketch
does but scant justice, extending over a period of nearly forty years,
reflects but a portion of that genius and untiring industry which have
so strongly influenced botanical research throughout the Empire.
L. Cockayne.
H. C. FIELD.
Henry Claylands Field was born at Holybourne, Hampshire, England,
in 1825. He received his education at Stock well Grammar School and
the City of London School, and completed the scholastic portion of his
life by a course at King's College, London.
Being destined for the profession of a civil engineer, he was articled
to Sir John Rennie, whose name is well known all over the world in
connection with great works of engineering, and who was the builder
of the present London Bridge.
At the age of twenty Mr. Field entered the service of an English
railway company, where he remained for ten years. The colonies then
attracted him, and he came out to New Zealand in the ship " Simla,"
and proceeded to Wanganui. The young settlement was then governed
by a Town Board, which appointed Mr. Field its Clerk and Engineer.
Subsequently he acted also as Engineer to the Road Boards of the dis-
trict, and as Consulting Engineer to the Rangitikei Road Board.
Obituary. v
By the construction of good communications Mr. Field left his mark
all over the district, being responsible for the construction of no less
than two thousand miles of roads. His name is perpetuated by Field's
Track from Wanganui to Karioi, the half of which nearest to Wanganui
now forms part of the Parapara Road. This track has been and is still
used by thousands, and is known as one of the best surveyed and graded
roadways in the country, even though part of it never got beyond the
track stage. In 1884 Mr. Field retired from active pursuits.
He published several papers on scientific subjects, and a book entitled
" Ferns of New Zealand," which gives a popular account of the ferns of
these Islands and its immediate dependencies, and is noted for its good
descriptions and excellent illustrations.
He was an ardent supporter and exhibitor of the Horticultural
Society, and took a great interest in harbour matters and public affairs
generally.
He died at Aramoho, Wanganui, at the advanced age of eighty-seven
vears.
CONTENTS.
I. BOTANY.
Transactions.
Art. I. Observations concerning Evolution, derived from Ecological pages
Studies in New Zealand. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. 1-50
II. Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant- habitats, Part VII. By L.
Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. .. .. .. 51-59
III. Some Notes on the Botany of the Spenser Mountains, with a
List of Species collected. By R. M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc. . . 60-75
IV. Notes on the Plant Covering of Codfish Island and the Rugged
Islands. By D. L. Poppelwell . . . . . . 76-85
V. List of Lichens and Fungi collected in the Kermadec Islands in
1908. By W. R, B. Oliver . . . . . . . . 86-87
XV. A New Genus and some New Species of Plants. By T. F. Cheese-
man, F.L.S., F.Z.S. . . . . . . . . . . 159-162
XVII. Descriptions of New Native Species of Phanerogams. By D.
Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. .. .. .. .. .. 179-187
XVIII. On Danthonia nuda and Triodia Thomsoni. By D. Petrie,
M.A., Ph.D. .. .. .. .. .. 188
XXXVI. The Anatomical Structure of the New Zealand Piperaccae. By
Miss Anne F. Ironside, M.A. . . . . . . . . 339-348
XXXVII. Observations on Salicornia austrulis. By Miss F. W. Cooke, M.A. 349-362
Proceedings.
Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation. By B. C.
Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. . . . . . . . . Part I 19-24
Note on Helichrijsum fasciculatum Buchanan. Bv T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.,
F.Z.S. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. Parti 24-25
Descriptions of some New Species of New Zealand Plants. By L. Cockayne,
Ph.D., F.L.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . Part II 50-52
II. ZOOLOGY.
Transactions.
Art. VI. A Revision of the Classification of the New Zealand Caradrinina.
By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S. . . . . . . 88-107
VII. On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand. By
G. B. Longstaff, M.A., M.D., F.E.S. .. .. .. 108-115
VIII. Descriptions of Three New Species of Lepidoptera. By Alfred
Philpott .. .. .. .. .. 115-116
IX. Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyrick,
B.A., F.R.S. .. .. .. .. .. 117-126
X. Notes on some Dragon-flies from the Kermadec Islands. By
R. J. Tillyard, M.A., F.E.S. . . . . . . . . 126-127
XI. Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea. By
Charles Chilton, M.A., M.B., D.Sc, F.L.S. .. .*. 128-135
XII. Report on Sundry Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands.
By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S. . . . . . . 135-138
XX. Notes on New Zealand Fishes: No. 2. By Edgar R. Waite,
F.L.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 194-202
324011
Vlll
Contents.
Art. XXI. New Species of Lepidoptera, with Notes on the Larvae and Pupae pages
of some New Zealand Butterflies. By George Howes,
F.E.S., F.L.S 203-208
XXIII. The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of Lord Howe,
Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands. By W. R. B. Oliver. . 214-221
XXV. Notes on Nest, Life-history, and Habits of Migas distinctus, a
New Zealand Trapdoor Spider. By J. B. Gatenby . . 234-240
XXVI. Some Features of the Circulatory System of Heptatrema cirrata
Forster. By Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A., Victoria College.
Wellington . . . . . . . . . . 241-244
XXXVIII. On a Collection of Mallophagu from the Kermadecs. By
T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc, Queensland University,
Brisbane, and Launcelot Harrison, Sydney . . . . 363-373
XXXIX. Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata Sowerby. By A. J.
Cottrell, M.A., M.Sc. . . . . . . . . ' . . 374-379
XL. Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. Bv Major
T. Broun, F.E.S 379-440
Proceedings.
Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand. By Gilbert
Archey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part I 25-28
Additions to the Fish Fauna of-the Kermadec Islands. By Edgar R. Waite,
F.L.S., Curator, Canterbury Museum . . . . . . Part I 28-29
Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae, with Descrip-
tion of a New Species. By L. B. Prout . . . . . . Part II 52-54
III. GEOLOGY.
Transactions.
Art. XIII. Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific in 1910. By
George Hogben, M.A., F.G.S. . . . . . . . . 139-142
XIV. Fluctuations in the Level of the Water in some Artesian Wells
in the Christchurch Area. By F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A.,
D.Sc. .. .. .. .. .. .. 142-159
XVI. Some Rocks of Mount Cargill, Dunedin. By J. A. Bartrum, M.Sc. 163-179
XXII. The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae. By B. C. Aston, F.I.C.,
F.C.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 208-213
XXIV. A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara Gorge. By R.
Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . 221-233
XXVII. Notes on Wellington Physiography. By C. A. Cotton, M.Sc,
Victoria College . . . . . . . . . . 245-265
XXXIII. Nephelinite Rocks in New Zealand. By Professor Marshall,
D.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . . . 304-307
XXXIV. The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaciation in the Tararua
Ranges, North Island, New Zealand. By G. L. Adkin . . 308-316
XXXV. The Geology of the Bluff, New Zealand. By L. J. Wild, M.A.. . 317-339
Proceedings.
Typical Sections showing the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka
Pass Stone at Weka Pass. By C. A. Cotton, M.Sc. (Abstract) Part III 84-85
Appendix.
Records of Milne Seismographs, 1906-1911. By H. F. Skey, B.Sc, and
G. Hogben. M. A.. F.G.S. ..
441-457
Contents.
IX
IV. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
Transactions.
Art. XXVIII. The Composition of some New Zealand Foodstuffs. By John pages
Malcolm, M.D., University of Otago . . . . . . 265-269
XXIX. Montan Wax. By Theodore Rigg, M.Sc. . . . . . . 270-287
XXX. The Chemistry of Bush Sickness. By B. C. Aston, F.C.S.,
F.I.C. .. .. .. .. .. .. 288-298
XXXI. Note on the Composition of Nitric Acid. By H. T. M. Fathers 299-300
XXXII. The Interaction of Iron with the Higher Fatty Acids. By
Thomas H. Easterfield and Clara Millicent Taylor, M. A. . . 301-303
Proceedings.
The Action of Alkyl Iodides on Copper-oxide. By H. G. Denham, M.A., D.Sc,
Ph.D. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Parti 29-30
The Nature of Gamma Rays. By Professor T. H. Laby and P. W. Bur-
bidge, B.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . Part I 30-31
V. MISCELLANEOUS.
Transactions.
Art. XTX. Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence of their
Language. By Professor J. Macmillan Brown, M.A., LL.D. 189-193
Proceedings.
Description of a Multiple- Rainbow. By G. L. Adkin (Abstract) .. Part III 85
The Methods of Snaring Birds used by the Maoris, with Notes on a Bird
known to the Maoris as "Tiaka." By J. Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
(Abstract) . . . . . . . . . . . . Part III 87
PROCEEDINGS.
[Following p. 457.]
Part I.— Issued 30th August, 1911.
II. — Issued 8th January, 1912.
III.— Issued 10th June, 1912.
.\c
c
<^1
LIST OF PLATES.
(Text figures not inchided.)
Cockayne, L. —
Plate I. — Example of a taxonoinic species
Plate II—
Fig. 1. Three forms of the " species " Veronica buzifolia
Fig. 2. Juvenile Coprosma Bmteri
Plate III—
Fig. 1. Sophora microphylla
Fig. 2. Pittosporum divaricatnm
Plate IV. — Podocarpus nivalis
Plate V—
Fig. 1. Veronica chathamica
Fig. 2. Veronica loganioides, V. cassinioides, and 1'. tetragona
Plate VI—
Figs. 1 and 2. Sophora tetraptera
Plate VII—
Fig. 1. Aristotelia fruticosa
Fig. 2. Pennantia corymbosa
Plate VIII. — Pittosporum divaricatnm
FOLLOWS
PAGE
4
4
20
20
20
22
22
22
26
26
26
PoPPEJVWELL, D. L.
Plate IX.—
Fig. 1. Rugged Islands, from the north ; Codfish Island in the distance . . SO
Fig. 2. Northern aspect of one of the Rugged Islands, showing Olearxa
angustifolia and O. Colensoi . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 3. Rugged Islands (weather side) . . . . . . 80
Waite, Edgar R. —
Plate X. — Aegoeonichthys appelii Clarke . . . . . . . . 194
Plate XI. — Oreosoma atlanticum Cuvier and Valenciennes . . . . . . 198
Plate XII. — Eurumetopos johnstonii Morton . . . . . . . . 200
Aston, B. C. —
Plate XIII—
Fig. 1. Corynocarpiis association, Palliser Bay . . . . . . 208
Fig. 2. Corynocarpiis and Muehlenbeckia complexa associations, Beach No. 4 208
Fig. 3. Pond formed immediately above Beach No. 2 . . . . 208
Fig. 4. Beach No. 1, elevated at 1855 earthquake . . . . . . 208
Plate XIV—
Fig. 1. Beach No. 5 (95 ft. above sea) . . . . . . . . 208
Fig. 2. Boulder Plain with No. 3 Beach (60 ft. above sea) 208
(xATENBY, J. B. —
Plate XV. — Nests, &c, of Migas distinctus, a New Zealand trapdoor spider . . 240
xii List of Plates.
Kirk, H. B.—
r« x viTi FOLLOWS
Plate XVI— PA0E
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of the circulatory system of Hepta-
trema cirrata . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Fig. 2. Part of the dorsal vessels and the nephridial system, from the
dorsal side . . . . . . . . . . 244
Plate XVII.—
Fig. 1. The efferent branchial vessels and the anterior part of the dorsal
aortic system, from the dorsal aspect . . . . . . 244
Fig. 2. The afferent branchial system, from the ventral aspect . . 244
Fig. 3. Right afferent branchial vessels, from the right side . . . . 244
Fig. 4. Anterior part of post-cardinal system, showing connection of right
sinus with portal heart . . . . . . . . . . 244
Fig. 5. The jugular system, dissected from ventral aspect . . . . 244
Cotton, C. A. —
Plate XVIII—
Fig. 1. View looking southward up Makara Valley from surface of flood -
plain of Tongue Point cycle . . . . . . . . 250
Fig. 2. The eastern shore of Miramar Peninsula, showing raised rock plat-
forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Fig. 3. Elevated coast platform at Tongue Point . . . . . . 250
Plate XIX— .
Fig. 1. South coast, east of Sinclair Head . . . . . . . . 250
Fig. 2. Scarp of the Wellington fault seen from Petone . . . . 250
Fig. 3. Facets at Petone Railway-station . . . . . . . . 250
Fig. 4. " Long Valley " : View from Ngaio towards Karori . . . . 250
Plate XX.—
Fig. 1. View looking up the lower gorge of the Kaiwarra towards Wades-
town . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Fig. 2. Fall in the lower gorge of the Ngahauranga . . . . . . 258
Plate XXI—
Fig. 1. Narrowed spur in the Ngahauranga Valley . . . . . . 258
Fig. 2. Raised beaches and wave-cut cliffs on the south-eastern shore of
Miramar Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . 258
Adkin, G. L. —
Plate XXII—
Fig. 1. General view of the glaciated part of Park Valley • . . . 308
Fig. 2. Waiohine-iti Valley . . . . . . . . . . 308
• Plate XXIII— Glaciated head of Park Valley . . . . . . 312
Plate XXIV — The largest glacial hanging valley in Park Valley . . . . 312
o
v.-
TRANSACTIONS.
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911.
Art. I. — Observations concerning Evolution, derived from Ecological Studies
in New Zealand.
By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd August, 1911.]
Plates I-VIII.
Table of Contents.
I. Introduction.
II. Elementary species.
III. Variation.
IV. Mutation.
V. Epharmon}'.
1. General.
2. Fixity of species — plasticity.
3. Response to ecological factors.
(a.) Soil.
{b.) Light.
(c.) Wind.
(d.) Water,
(e.) Altitude.
4. After-effect of stimuli.
5. Convergent epharmony.
(a.) The divaricating shrub form.
(6.) The cushion form,
(c.) The liane form.
(d.) The prostrate form.
6. Persistent juvenile forms.
VI. Hybridization.
VII. The struggle for existence.
VIII. Distribution of species.
1. Distribution in general.
2. Isolation.
IX. Evolution in the genus Veronica.
X. Concluding remarks.
XI. List of literature cited.
I. Introduction.
Plant-ecology is concerned with the study of plants as living organisms,
not in the laboratory under artificial conditions, but in the field as they
grow naturally. Like every branch of a great science, its content is not
bounded by any definite limits, but it intergrades with various departments
1- Trans.
2 Transactions.
of botany, especially physiology and floristic botany, though its methods
are different from those of the latter.
The conditions which the earth offers, in its manifold soils and climates,
for plant-life are extremely diverse and complex, but nevertheless there
exists in no few instances an apparent harmony between the conditions
and the plants, which is manifested in the latter by some special form either
of the organism as a whole or of one or more of its organs. It is obvious
that in attempting to correlate plant-forms with their environmental factors
matters are being dealt with which deeply affect the study of descent, and
data are accumulated which cannot be neglected by students of general
evolution.
But besides being occupied by plant-adaptations* the ecologist has also
to do with the species of the taxonomist, since for one part of his work,
at any rate, the groups of individuals indicated by the specific names are
at present the units with which he has to deal. Furthermore, his practical
acquaintance with such species, and particularly with their varieties,
must in course of time become wide, while a variation with him is not
merely a taxonomic mark to be noted for purposes of classification, but
a physiological expression to be explained.
Besides being concerned with the origin of adaptations and species,
plant-ecology deals with the arrangement of the latter into the various
more or less well-defined combinations entitled " plant -associations," and
here come in such fundamental evolutionary concepts as distribution,
isolation, and the struggle for existence.
Plant-ecology itself, although studied in a more or less desultory and
incoherent fashion since the time of Linnaeus, may be said to date, as a
special branch of botany, from the publication of Warming's Plantesam-
fund in 1895. f At first looked at askance by the older botanists, it has
steadily advanced in importance. It is prosecuted by careful and enthu-
siastic workers in many lands, and is now almost universally recognized
as a field of the highest biological moment. Unfortunately, its methods
are for the most part extremely crude, there is but little uniformity of
procedure amongst its adherents, and its nomenclature is altogether un-
fixed. Lastly, many of the problems that await solution are amongst the
most difficult that science has to offer.
Bearing the above statements in mind, it is obvious that the simpler
the conditions and the fewer the species involved, the easier is it to draw
conclusions of moment, and to state the ecological " facts," if one may so
designate what arise from observations made under conditions far from
stringent. Also, a virgin vegetation alone can give definite information on
many topics. Tue New Zealand biological region supplies in some mea-
sure the above desiderata. Its vascular flora, consisting of some 1,650
species, is not too great for an ecological worker to grasp ; its vegetation
is still in many places absolutely virgin ; its climate varies from subtropical
to subantarctic ;| some parts experience an annual rainfall of more than
* The convenient term " adaptation " is used throughout this piper in a non-
teleological sense.
f This statement applies rather to the ecology of plant-distribution than to that
general and more fundamental study of life-reactions known as " biology " by German
investigators. In this latter sense Darwin himself stands pre-eminent as an ecologist.
% The subantarctic and the subarctic climates are by no means identical. Intense
cold plays no part in the first-named, its main characteristics being lack of sunshine,
frequent cold gales, constant showers, and a low average temperature all the year, with
but little frost in winter.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E eolation . 3
500 cm. and other parts less than 30 cm. ; the plant formations include
mangrove swamp, rain forest, heaths of various kinds, subglacial fell- and
herb-fields, varied associations of rock and debris, subantarctic southern-
beech forest, associations in and near hot springs, dunes, salt meadows,
steppes, swamps, and moors — in fact, for an equal variety an ecologist would
have to explore one of the larger continents in its entirety. Further, the
isolation of the region for a vast period of time far from any other land-
surface ; the absence of grazing animals, the moa (Dinornis) excepted ;
the diverse floral elements (Malayan, Australian, Subantarctic, &c.) ; the
strong endemism ; the numerous small islands where conditions are simpler
than on the larger ones ; and, finally, the presence of many areas whose vege-
tation has been changed within a very few years through the farming
operations of the settler, and its components replaced by exotics of quite
different growth-forms — all these attributes much enhance the importance
of New Zealand for ecological research.
Now, although I well know that the final court of appeal in evolutionary
matters is experiment, still it seems to me that some few details having
a bearing on various phases of the evolution question selected from numerous
observations on a vegetation and a flora that one may venture to designate
'' unique " may perhaps be worth the attention of students of descent.
II. Elementary Species.
Few will deny, whatever be their opinions as to its truth, that the most
awakening contribution of late years to the evolution question has been
the mutation theory of De Vries. Leaving out of consideration for the
present the value of the theory as a means of evolution, the introduction
of careful experimental methods — i.e., a return to Darwin's own procedure
— rather than mere argument in favour of this or that dogma has given
new life to the study of evolution. Moreover, a change of the highest
moment is the substitution of elementary species* as the raw material for
the evolutionary process, rather than the Linnean species, which, as shown
below, are frequently ideas merely and not living entities. It seems well,
then, first of all to examine how far the doctrine of elementary species is
supported by the New Zealand flora, as interpreted by ecology.
It need hardly be pointed out that the species of New Zealand taxono-
mists belong to the Linnean category, and that, while some refer to definite
and well-defined groups the individuals of which can be recognized at a
glance (e.g., Veronica Gilliesiana T. Kirk, Senecio cassinioides Hook, f.,
Carmichaelia gracilis J. B. Armstg., Urtica jerox Forst. f.), others vary
to such an extent that there is no special set of individuals reproducing
a plant that matches the specific description, which is drawn up so as to
include a varying series of formsf which are considered to intergrade (e.g.,
Veronica salicifolia Forst. f., Celmisia coriacea Hook, f., Asplenium bulbi-
ferum Forst. f., Danthonia semiannularis R. Br., and, roughly speaking,
perhaps 25 per cent of the vascular flora). Such " species " as these latter
do not really exist ; they are ideas only, and their origin has nothing to do with
evolution. Other " species," again, through want of a full knowledge of their
* This is not very different, after all, from Darwin's view, who declared that " a
well-marked variety may therefore be considered an incipient species . . . the
term ' species' is one arbitrarily given to a set of individuals closely resembling each other,
and that it does not essentially differ from the term ' variety.' " (Darwin, 1899, p. 39.)
t And then accepting this as a species, it is said to be " extremely variable."
4 Transactions.
forms, &c, may include even more than one Linnean species, as appears
to be the case with Pittosporum rigidum Hook, f., as defined by Hooker,
Kirk, and Cheeseman. Plate I shows this case clearly, where the type
of P. rigidum on the right differs most markedly from the common South
Island form on the left, which I am naming P. divaricatum*
In some cases the difficulty as to distinguishing-names is met by the
" creation " of " varieties " ; but these, again, are of quite different values,
and may belong to distinct biological categories. A few examples taken
from the " Manual of the New Zealand Flora ': (Cheeseman, 1906) will
explain my meaning.
1. Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. (p. 78) is divided into the three varieties- —
(a) vulgaris Hook, f., (b) lanceolata Hook, f., and (c) angustifolia Hook. f.
There is no such plant in existence as H. populnea, for the description
includes the three varieties (a), (b), and (c), each of which, however, is
distinguished by a special diagnosis, the varieties (a), (b), and (c) respectively
representing distinct groups of individuals which reproduce themselves
true from seed.
2. Carmichaelia Enysii T. Kirk has a variety orbiculata T. Kirk (p. 111).
Both the species and its variety are described. But in this case the specific
description refers to one set of individuals possessing certain characters,
which is C. Enysii proper, and does not include var. orbiculata, which is to
be recognized through its having other characters absent in C. Enysii proper,
which latter may then be termed the type.
3. Epilobium junceum Sol. has vars. cinereum Hausskn., hirtigerum
Hook, f., and macrophyllum Hausskn., each of which is defined at consider-
able length (p. 175). But none of these names represents a biological entity.
for E. junceum, to quote from Cheeseman, " is an extremely variable
plant, the numerous forms of which may be grouped in the three following
varieties " — i.e., as above. Further he writes, " The extreme states of the
above varieties have a very distinct appearance, and might have been
treated as species were they not connected by numerous intermediate forms,
which make it quite impossible to draw strict lines of demarcation between
them." Here, then, the description of the species does not indicate a type,
but it includes the three varieties and all the intermediate forms, while the
varieties themselves are likewise not distinct entities,! and belong to a
different biological category to the var. orbiculata of C. Enysii.
4. Gaultheria rupestris R. Br. (p. 407) is a similar example to the last,
being said to be " a highly variable plant, the numerous forms of which
are best arranged under two heads " —namely, var. lanceolata Cheesem.
and var. parvi folia Cheesem.
5. In certain other cases, where there are a host of intergrading forms,
the most divergent are treated as separate species notwithstanding that they
are connected by intermediates. An example of this is Veronica, pinguifolia
Hook. f. and V. Buchanani Hook, f., of which latter species Cheeseman
writes (p. 527), " Larger forms approach V. pinguifolia so closely that
it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation between the two species.
My var. major might be referred to either." Other examples of similar
* It seems possible also that P. divaricatum consists of two elementary species, found
in the steppe and forest climates of the South Island respectively. See Plate VIII, and
compare it with the figure in Diels (1906).
f Biologically some are certainly distinct entities, as, e.g., the variety macrophyllum,
which Petrie has " made " into a species under the name E. erectum, and which is greatly
on the increases where forest is being removed in the Waimarino locality.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV
Plate I.
Example of a Taxonomic Species.
On right and left, adults of Pittosporum rigidum, not distinguished as varieties ;
in centre, juvenile form of plant on light.
Face p. 4.]
Trans. N.Z Inst.. Vol. XLIV
Plate II.
Fig. 1. — Three Forms of the 'Species" Veronica buxtfolia.
Fig. 2. — Juvenile Coprosma Baueri.
Showing early prostrate shoots and later erect ones.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 5
treatment are Olearia Haastii Hook. f. and 0. oleifolia T. Kirk (p. 290),
Ranunculus Sinclairii Hook. f. and R. gracilipes Hook. f. (p. 18), and
Poa seticulmis Petrie and P. pusilla Berggr. (p. 905).
6. Veronica buxifolia Benth., as originally denned, probably referred to
a quite definite set of individuals Even by Cheeseman (pp. 522, 523) the
species is spoken of as a " plant," and not as a varying series of forms.
Further, the species is defined as " erect," and but one variety is allowed.
In point of fact, however, the " species " includes three distinct growth-forms,
at any rate, two of which, the prostrate, and the low, erect, sparingly branched,
are shown in Plate II, fig. 1. The var. odora T. Kirk (patens Cheesem.)
is of the ball-like growth-form. In this example, then, a taxonomic species
includes plants belonging to at least three absolutely distinct biological categories.
And, in addition, it is highly probable that a dozen or more distinct true-
breeding entities might easily be separated from the heterogeneous mass of
individuals known as V. buxifolia.
7. Many varieties are of a quite different physiological value to others.
Some, as in cases 1, 2, and 6, reproduce themselves true from seed. This
I have definitely proved in a number of instances ; they are, in fact, true
elementary species. Others, again, are merely environmental (unfixed ephar-
monic)* forms, such as are dealt with further on, of which notable examples
are the var. prostrataf Hook. f. of Leptospermum scoparium Forst. (p. 160),
the var. rhombifolius% Hook. f. of Ranunculus pinguis Hook. f. (p. 12), and the
var. pauperatus§ T. Kirk of Rubus cissoides A. Cunn. (p. 125). Finally, other
varieties represent a series of forms regarding the stability of which nothing is
known, but which are supposed, without any sufficient reason, to be unstable.
Without going into further details, it is evident that the species of New
Zealand taxonomists are. rather the creation of man than of Nature. In
saying this I am not hypercritical. The main object of a flora is to enable
a plant to be readily identified, and this, from the very nature of the case,
demands a more or less artificial classification. Where such precise and
copious information as to variation is given as in Cheeseman's most careful
and exact work there need be no mistake, and the worker in the field knows
exactly what he may expect. But, as a rule, writers on evolution have
quite neglected to distinguish between taxonomic and physiological species,
which latter alone are their concern. !|
Although breeding-experiments can alone decide as to fixity of form,
ecology should tell something. If a certain set of individuals remain
unchanged over wide areas, so far as their specific marks go, and under
varying conditions, it may be assumed with tolerable confidence that they
reproduce their like, and are therefore species, elementary or Linnean, as
* Such forms are called by Massart " accomodative," in contradistinction to " adap-
tive " — i.e., specific and hereditary. Regarding taxonomic varieties, the same author
writes, " Malheureusement on ne peut pas toujours se tier aux travaux de eystematique
pour distinguer les accomodations des variations proprement dites," and he cites the
example of Polygonum amphibium, with its varieties nutans, terrestre, and maritimum, all
of which are simply accomodative states. (1910, pp. 9, 10.)
t See Cockayne, 1909, p. 16.
% See Cockayne, 1909a, p. 201.
§ See Cockayne, 1901, pp. 293, 294.
|| O. F. Cook's remarks are worthy of consideration (1907, pp. 362, 363): "The
difficulty of defining the term ' species ' has arisen mostly from the fact that the
phenomenon is a physiological one, whereas the general supposition has been that it
is morphological. . . . For evolutionary purposes a species is a group of inter-
breeding organisms ; nothing more is required, nothing less will suffice."
6 Transactions.
the case may be. And perhaps it is allowable to go further, and say that
if several allied plants grow in close proximity in sufficient numbers, and
preserve their distinguishing characters, they are probably distinct, and
would come true from seed. A case of this latter class is to be seen at
the lower gorge of the River Waimakariri, Canterbury Plain, where the
vars. microphylla Hook. f. and prostrata T. Kirk of Sophora tctraptera J. Mill.
grow side by side, and in this case I have proved experimentally that both
varieties come true from seed. So, too, with certain forms of Acaena
Sanguisorbae Vahl. growing on subalpine fell-fields.
There is no need to multiply instances such as the above ; suffice it to
say that both from experiment and ecological observations I am satisfied
that elementary species are very numerous in the New Zealand flora, especially
in certain genera — e.g., Calamagrostis, Danthonia, Poa, Festuca, Scirpus.
Uncinia, Car ex, Luzula, ? Phormium, Ranunculus, Cardamine, Pittosporum,
Eubus, Acaena, Carmichaelia, Oxalis, Coriaria, Aristotelia, Pimelea, Epi-
lobium, Leptospermum, Anisotome, Aciphylla, Gaultheria, Dracophylhtm.
Gentiana, Myosotis, Veronica, Coprosma, Celmisia, Cotula, Craspedia, and
Senecio. On the other hand, many species vary to a slight degree only.
and are to be recognized at a glance.
III. Variation.
Apart from constant hereditary distinctions, there are " the individual
differences," as Darwin called them (1899, p. 31), or " fluctuating varia-
tions," as they are now frequently designated. These are supposed to
depend upon a reaction of the organism to a change of environment.
Klebs (1910, p. 235) distinguishes two kinds, the one " caused by different
external conditions during the production either of sexual cells or vegetative
primordia," and the other " is the result of varying external conditions
during the development of the embryo into an adult plant." The two sets
of influences cannot as yet be sharply differentiated. The following case
illustrates this difficulty.
Olearia semidentata Dene, is a moderate-sized xerophytic shrub, which
is confined to the moors of the Chatham Islands, where both the climatic
and edaphic conditions appear to be of great constancy (Cockayne, 1902.
p. 288). The leaves vary on different individuals in size, shape, toothing,
and tomentum, and plants grow side by side which, so far as general ap-
pearance goes, might easily be taken for distinct species. Probably here
the variations are germinal, but at the same time each plant has its own
rooting-place* and its individual physiological character, so it cannot be
denied but that each plant is subjected to slightly different stimuli to those
experienced by any other.
A most important question is the heredity in fluctuating variations
and the degree to which they can be accumulated. Darwin (1899, pp. 31,
32) considered them all-important. " These individual differences," he
writes, " are of the highest importance for us, for they are often inherited,
as must be familiar to every one ; and they thus afford materials for
natural selection to act on and accumulate in the same manner as man
* The importance of the rooting-places of individuals is generally neglected by
plant-ecologists who define the conditions of the habitat as a whole, whereas species
growing side by side may be subjected to quite different influences, as in the case of
shallow- and deep- rooting species, erect and prostrate, and so on.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 7
accumulates in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated
productions." And further on (p. 38), " Hence I look on individual
differences ... as of the highest importance for us, as being the
first steps towards such slight varieties as are barely thought worth record-
ing in works on natural history." De Vries and his followers, on the other
hand, deny that a fluctuating character can be accumulated indefinitely,
and affirm that, " Selection according to a constant standard reaches its
results in a few generations. The experience of Van Mons and other
breeders of apples shows how soon the limit of size and lusciousness may
be attained. . . . Improvements of flowers in size and colour are
usually easy and rapid in the beginning, but an impassable limit is soon
reached" (De Vries, 1904, pp. 806, 807). Further (p. 18), "Fluctuations
always oscillate round an average, and if removed from this for some time
they show a tendency to return to it. This tendency, called ' retrogression,'
has never been observed to fail as it should in order to free the new strain
from the links with the average." Again, " Fluctuations are not observed
to produce anything quite new, and evolution, of course, is not restricted
to the. increase of the already existing peculiarities, but depends upon
the continuous addition of new characters to the stock." The opinion of
Klebs cannot be overlooked in this matter. This famous investigator
has shown in his remarkable experiments (Klebs, 1903) that variations
can be artificially induced which are far beyond the limits of fluctuat-
ing variability and considerably greater than any mutations hitherto
recorded.
Ecological observations can say little on a debatable topic like this,
where long-conducted experiments are alone of weight. Some observations
regarding vegetables which have escaped from cultivation in New Zealand
are not without interest, as showing reversion to the wild state. The radish
{Rhaphanus sativus L.) is abundantly naturalized near Wellington, but
the roots are no longer swollen to any extent. The parsnip (Peucedanum
■sativum Benth. & Hook.), probably the celebrated " Student," which is
supposed by writers on evolution to be a fixed race,* came up year by year
in a neglected part of my garden, but in a much deteriorated form.f So,
too, with " improved " pansies, primroses, and polyanthuses^ in my garden,
and with Eschscholtzia califormoa as naturalized near Cromwell, Central
Otago.
In many cases fluctuating variations are very small, and appear to
be neither an advantage nor the contrary to their possessor. In other
cases there are variations of much greater magnitude, which ecological
observations, as shown further on, prove to be distinctly dependent
upon external stimuli bringing about a response within the plant which
is manifested by a visible, morphological or an invisible physiological
change.
"&x
* Romanes (1895, p. 125) writes, " That is to say, it has oome true to seed for the
last forty years." Romanes mentions this case as an example in support of the heredity
of an acquired character, but Darwin (1905, p. 229) mentions it as a case of " methodical
selection."
f With a species such as this it really must be nearly impossible to judge under
European conditions how far a supposed " wild " plant may be really wild and not the
descendant of a cultivated form.
J The leaf-like calyx of the primroses, &c, known as " Jack-in-the-green " is a
remarkably persistent character.
8 Transactions.
IV. Mutations.*
There seems to be no doubt but that De Vriesian mutations arise from
time to time. That such afford a better material for preservation by natural
selection than do small fluctuating variations is obvious. Unfortunately,
the number of cases of veritable mutants is small, while most have originated
in cultivation. This last fact discounts the value of the mutation theory
in the opinion of many.f My own feeling, as an amateur gardener of many
years' standing, and as one who has cultivated with his own hands several
thousand species of both wild and garden plants in an antipodean garden
far from the home of most, is that ordinary cultivation, without manure,
has little effect in producing variations of moment. In my garden, plants
reproduced themselves from seed freely and came to maturity, but beyond
a number of daffodils and some, probably hybrid, dwarf phloxes (Phlox
subulata L.) I remember nothing " new."
In estimating the origin of species by mutation, nothing but experi-
ment can prove the heredity of the new character. All that ecology can
do is to note striking varieties, their frequency, their environment, the
position of the individual possessing such variations with regard to normal
individuals, and so on.
The following examples of what may be full or partial mutations in
the New Zealand flora, indigenous and introduced, may be of interest : —
1. The white form of Myosotidium nobile Hook.
The species is confined to the Chatham Islands, where it grows on or
near the sea-shore. In the normal form the central half of the corolla is
bright blue, which fades to purple, and the edges are more or less white.
Mrs. Chudleigh, of Wharekauri, some years ago discovered one plant with
white flowers growing wild in the north of the main island, and although she
is an excellent observer, and Myosotidium: has been carefully noted in its
habitat by Mr. Cox and others, no more white-flowered forms have been
observed. The plant in question is now fairly common in cultivation, and. I
understand, comes true from seed. So, too, does the normal blue form. J
* Something not very different to the mutation theory was propounded by J. B.
Armstrong, formerly of the Christchurch Botanical Garden, in a paper dealing with the
New Zealand species of Veronica in 1881, in these words : " I have been enabled to observe
numerous garden-seedlings of many of the forms, and they almost invariably resemble
their parents. Sometimes, however, sports appear, and when this happens there seems
to be a strong tendency on the part of the sport to reproduce itself, and it appears to
me that it is just in this manner that the greater number of our native forms have been
produced. At some very distant date there were probably only two or three (perhaps only
one) species existing within the limits of the colony ; but, oir account of the extreme
local variations of climate and varied geological formation of the surface, certain varia-
tions occurred, and a sport so produced, being self-fertile, and having within itself all
the elements required for reproduction, naturally reproduced its like until another such
sport occurred, and thus the forms gradually became differentiated from the type, and
by a long series of such sports one large family of Veronicas has been formed." Then
he goes on to show how similar mutations have taken places amongst species of other
lands, and considers that the intermediates have been eradicated " by man or the larger
animals, leaving only in most cases the more widely differentiated forms." But in
New Zealand man has done little, and very many intermediate forms have been pre-
served.
f Klebs, however, writes (1910, p. 241), " Even if it is demonstrated that he was
simply dealing with the splitting-up of a hybrid, the facts adduced in no sense lose their
very great value."
% Raising from seed is, in fact, the only satisfactory method of propagating both
the type and the white-flowered form.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E volution . 9
2. The white variety of Clianthus puniceus Banks & Sol.
The type has scarlet flowers. It is now very scarce as a wild plant, but
grew originally on or near sea-cliffs from the East Cape district northwards,
and inland at Lake Waikaremoana. The type is a most common garden-
plant ; it is propagated from seeds, and comes true. According to Cheese-
man (1907, p. 443), from information supplied by Mr. H. Hill, the flowers
of East Cape plants vary considerably in colour, size, shape, and relative
proportions of the petals. At Waikaremoana the flowers are comparatively
small and reddish-purple. At Tolaga and Tokomaru they are large, and the
standard very broad, with a whitish stripe on each side near the base.
The white form is white throughout. It is propagated from seed, and,
according to Mr. T. W. Adams, comes true.* It is very common in culti-
vation. As for its origin, according to Cheeseman, " a white-flowered
variety is stated by the Maoris to grow on the Tiniroto cliffs." This may
or may not be the source of the garden form. Possibly G. puniceus consists
of several elementary species.
3. Geranium Traversii Hook. f. var. elegans Cockayne (Geraniac).
The normal colour of the flowers of G. Traversii is white. It grows on
coastal cliffs of the Chatham Islands. The flowers of var. elegans are pink
in colour, and rather larger. It comes " true ': from seed. According
to Captain Dorrien Smith, it is found occasionally on Chatham Island, but
I only know it as a garden-plant.
4. Phormium tenax Forst., form with purplish leaves (Liliac).
The origin of this striking plant is not known. It is very common in
New Zealand gardens It appears to come very nearly, or perhaps abso-
lutely, true from seed, and the young plants have much more brilliantly
coloured leaves than the adult.
P. tenax was commonly cultivated by the Maoris, who recognized by
name many distinct-looking forms. f Some of these appear to reproduce
themselves more or less true, while others are probably of hybrid origin.
5. Phormium Cookianum Le Jobs, form with bracts in part instead of
flowers (Liliac). (See Williams, 1904, p. 333, and pi. 25.)
The plant in question was discovered by the Right Rev. Bishop Wil-
liams growing a little above high- water mark at Blackhead. It was then
in seed, and the capsules were accompanied by numerous persistent bracts.
A few of the seeds were sown. One of the young plants produced an in-
florescence similar to that of the parent in 1900 and 1901, but in 1902 the
four scapes produced flowers and seeds in the usual way, but these in the
course of the summer " began to be clothed with leaves " in their upper
portions.
6. Various crimson- and pink-flowered forms of Leptospermum scoparium
Forst. (Myrtac).
At least six individuals of Leptospermum scoparium bearing crimson or
deep-pink flowers without a trace of white have been found wild in various
* Mr. Cheeseman informs me that he also has raised the white form from seed, and
that none of the plants produced flowers other than white.
f Fifty-seven names are given in " Phormium tenax as a Fibrous Plant " ( Wellington,
1872), but it is now known that many of them are synonyms. There are extensive col-
lections on some of the Government experimental farms, where their behaviour as to
constancy, hybridization, &c, is being studied.
10 Transactions.
parts of New Zealand. The two best known bear the garden names of
L. Chapmanii* and L. Nicholsii* respectively. Seedlings in abundance
have been raised from the latter by Messrs. Nairn and Son, Christchurch, in
their nursery, and every opportunity was kindly afforded me of studying
their form, &c. (see Cockayne, 1907a). The colour of the original plant
is repeated more or less in the seedlings, but it varies a good deal, and some
flowers are white. Dark-coloured leaves, a parental character, accompany
the darker flowers.
In a case recorded by Cheeseman the plant was reported by its finder,
Mr. R. J. Gilberd, to come true to colour (Cheeseman, 1908, p. 275).
It is obvious that these crimson forms only appear occasionally, for
they are too striking in contrast with the familiar white blossoms to be
overlooked by even a casual observer. Further, the change of colour is
deep-seated in the plant, since the leaves are also affected. In L. Nicholsii
Hort., too, the plant is of a weeping habit, as opposed to the normal erect
stature. Finally, it must be noted that the semi-mutants grew in widely
separated localities, some in the South and others in the North Island.
7. Double white form of Leptospermuni scoparium Foist. (Myrtac).
This was found growing wild on pumice soil in the Hot Lakes district
by Mr. E. Philipps Turner. The doubling is very complete, and, so far as I
could judge from much-damaged specimens, resulted from petalody of the
stamens. Probably it is unable to produce seed. This case is of further
interest because double flowers, as De Vries has pointed out (1905, p. 489),
are exceedingly rare in the wild state, though so common in cultivation.
Only one individual was noted. The mutation was evidently quite spon-
taneous, and cannot be attributed to any sudden change of soil-conditions.
Leptospermuni scoparium is a most variable plant. Doubtless some
of the forms are good elementary species. The form with pinkish flowers
and hairy leaves, &c, of northern Auckland, which occurs over wide areas
side by side with other forms from which it can be recognized at a glance,
is a case in point.
8. Olearia semidentata Dene., form with white florets.
The type has brilliant purple flower-heads. The white form was dis-
covered growing wild by Captain A. A. Dorrien Smith. It is now in
cultivation in the garden at Tresco Abbey, Scilly.
A similar case is var. Dendyi Cockayne of Olearia chathamica T. Kirk,
found on Pitt Island by Dr. A. Dendy, F.R.S., and which has purple florets
and yellower denser tomentum on the under-surface of the leaf than the
type, the florets of which, moreover, are white fading to purplish.
9. Metrosideros lucida Menzies, form with white flowers.
The type has crimson flowers. The white -flowered form has been found
in two places, one plant which I have seen growing near the head of the
Otira Gorge, Westland, and the other lower down the valley. f
10. Metrosideros tomentosa A. Rich., form with yellow flowers.
Mr. H. Carse (Cheeseman, 1906, p. 1137) discovered one specimen with
yellow flowers, those of the type being dark crimson, at Rangaunu
Harbour, northern Auckland.
* Because I use these garden names it must not be concluded that I consider the
plants of the same biological class as Linnean species, or even elementary species.
1 1 am indebted to Mr. J. O'Malley, of Otira, for calling my attention to the latter plant.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution .
11
11. Rubus Barkeri Cockayne.
This is a presumably non-flowering species (see Cockayne, 1910, p. 325) ;
at any rate, cuttings from an adult plant growing luxuriantly and under
most varied conditions for a period of thirteen years have never flowered.
Be this as it may, the plant in question, although closely related to R. parvus
Buchanan, differs from that species in its trifoliate leaves with lanceolate*
leaflets and not simple linear leaves, its serrate and not dentate leaf-margins,
its different autumnal colouring and its greater size in all parts (see fig. 1).
Fig. 1. — Outline of Leaf of (a) Rubus Barkeri, (b) R. parvus, x f.
'Only one plant was originally noted. Recently I have seen abundance of
Rubus parvus in various localities in Westland and under different condi-
tions, but it is remarkably constant in characters, and presented no transi-
tions towards R. Barkeri. I know well that my action in " creating " a
taxonomic species in this case is open to adverse criticism, especially as
I believe that the original wild plant may be the only one in existence ; but
if a species can originate by mutation there must be a time when there is
only one individual, and if so, and its characteristic marks are of " specific "
importance, it is just as much a " species " as if there were thousands of
similar individuals.
* So defined in original description, but leaflets in fig. 1 are broader.
12 Transactions.
12. Veronica Benthami Hook, f., form with white flowers.
V. Benthami is a shrub of straggling habit endemic in the Auckland
Islands. The flowers are normally of a brilliant blue, a most unusual colour
amongst New Zealand plants. One or two individuals with white flowers
were noted by me in 1907. Also, another plant had the flowers almost
carmine when just opening, but fading to a paler colour on the outer parts
of the corolla when fully expanded (Cockayne, 1909, p. 203).
13. Occurrence of variegation, &c.
There are three forms of variegated Coprosma Baueri Endl. in cultivation
of whose origin I know nothing. A variegated form of Griselinia littoralis
Raoul was discovered a number of years ago by the late Mr. Purdie in the
vicinity of Dunedin. The late Mr. H. J. Matthews found, also in the
neighbourhood of Dunedin, a form of Fuchsia excorticata L. f. with very
dark-coloured leaves, quite different from the normal. One individual of
Cordyline australis Hook. f. with variegated leaves was found many years ago
in a batch of seedlings raised at Duncan's nursery, Christchurch. It appears
to come true from seed. Variegated forms of Veronica salicifolia Forst.
have appeared on several occasions in cultivation. There are variegated
forms of Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. and P. eugenioides A. Cunn..
but their origin is unknown. A form of Coprosma robusta Raoul with
yellow and not the typical red-orange drupes was found by me near Kaipara
Harbour, Auckland. There are a number of variegated forms of Phormium
tenax Forst. and P. Cookianum Le Jobs in cultivation, which come more
or less true from seed, but a variegated plant of the latter species found
wild by me on Mount Sherwood. Marlborough, upon being brought into
cultivation reverted to the type.
14. Tetragonia expansa Murr.
This case is cited by De Vries (1901, p. 169). There are two forms, one
with brownish and the other with green flowers ; both came true. The
wild plant in New Zealand has yellow flowers.
15. Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol., form with yellow flowers.
In New Zealand, so far as is known, the petals are invariably dark-
purple, almost black. But, according to H. M. Hall (1910, pp. 7, 8), two
shrubs growing in a row of the normal-coloured plant in California pro-
duced yellow flowers. Should this be at all common in New Zealand it
could hardly have escaped notice.
16. Introduced plants.
Some remarkable more or less hereditary variations have come about
in the broom (Cytisus scoparius Link.), gorse (Ulex europaeus L.), and tree-
lupin (Lupinus arboreus Sims). In the first two named species there are
colour-changes from the normal yellow to white, differences in size and
shape of flower, and, in the gorse, variation in time of blooming.
Lupinus arboreus Sims, normally yellow, and varying but little in its
native land, on the dunes near New Brighton, Canterbury, has undergone
many remarkable changes in the colour of its flowers. There is, e.g., a
pure-white, yellows of various tints, and a great variety of purples com-
bined, or not, with whites and yellows. These abnormally coloured plants
occur in patches here and there as a general rule, and appear to get more
abundant year by year. In the North Island I have neither noticed nor
heard of such variations, nor yet in Central Otago.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E volution . 13
Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and cowgrass (the var. perenne) vary
to an astonishing extent in a small patch, chiefly self-sown, in my garden.
Many of the forms are most distinct, and the new characters are diverse,
affecting colour of flowers, stems, and foliage, form of inflorescence, degree
and kind of hairiness, general habit, &c. Here pure culture-methods and
Mendelian procedure would be needed to come to any reliable conclusions
as to variants such as these.
Holcus lanatus L. and Dactylis glomerata L., I am informed, vary at
times beyond their ordinary fluctuating capacity.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris Medic, a very variable species in its natural
habitat, and which has already given rise to certain mutants, varies to an
astonishing degree in New Zealand, especially in highly manured ground.
A careful study of such variation is certainly demanded.
Y. Epharmony.
1. General.
It is when we come to epharmonic adaptations that ecology presents
its most important contribution to the evolution question.
In attempting to explain the origin of epharmonic adaptations it is
evident that, as in the case of all explanations of evolutionary phenomena,
no absolute proof can be given without experiment, and, where such is
wanting, it seems reasonable that the most probable explanation should
be accepted for the time being, notwithstanding that other though less
probable explanations would fit the case. Generally in polemical dis-
cussions on matters of evolution natural selection is assumed to be a vera
causa which needs no demonstration, and if any other reason is put for-
ward, however likely it may appear, it is considered of no moment, unless
it can be proved not merely to the hilt, but to the objector's satisfaction.
Now, I am of opinion that in the hereditary epharmonic variations
cited below there is a much greater likelihood of their having been brought
about by the direct action of the various ecological factors than by the
continuous accumulative selection of fluctuating varieties, and in making
this statement I am merely echoing the opinion regarding analogous phe-
nomena of Romanes (1895, pp. 122-32), Warming (1909, pp. 370-73).
MacDougal (1911, p. 57), Henslow (1895, 1908), Costantin (1898), (Scott-
Elliott, 1910), and many other writers on evolution.
With the much-disputed Lamarckian factors use and disuse, which are
so frequently the only parts of the doctrine dealt with by the zoological
opponents of modified Lamarckism, I have nothing to do. How far evolu-
tionary methods correspond in the plant and animal kingdoms no one can
say, but it does not seem unreasonable to imagine that they may have been
in many respects different.* At any rate, this paper is concerned only with
the botanical side of evolution.
2. Fixity of Species — Plasticity.
Nothing has been brought out more clearly by ecological studies in
New Zealand than the extreme " plasticity " of many species and struc-
tures, and their rapid response to a change of environment. This is so
* Leavitt (1907, p. 237) writes, " In no case is it safe to reason deductively from
one kingdom to the other. In the factors affecting their evolutioTi, plants and animals
differ vastly.
14 Transactions.
great in numerous instances that the idea of " normal " loses its meaning*
Take the following examples : —
(a.) Leptospermum scoparium Forst. (Myrtac.) may be a moderate-sized
tree, a tall shrub, a dwarf plant 2-8 cm. tall which flowers and ripens seed,
and an absolutely prostrate plant which forms a dense covering to the ground
and puts forth adventitious roots, although the erect forms are exceedingly
difficult to artificially strike as cuttings.
(6.) Certain shrubs are of the xerophytic divaricating growth-form when
growing in the open, but of a comparatively loose, leafy, and mesophytic
habit when growing in the shade and shelter of the forest — e.g., Pittosporum,
divaricatum* Cockayne, Corokia Cotoneaster Raoul, Aristotelia fruticosa^
Hook, f., &c. In such a case, were the shade form alone in existence (see
Plate VII, fig. 1), there is no botanist but would consider it fixed and
normal, and yet it is the sun and wind form rather that is so considered.
(c.) Fuchsia Colensoi Hook. f. (Onagrac.) is a twiggy shrub in the open,
but in the forest it is frequently a scrambling liane.
(d.) Hymenophyllum multifidum Sw. (Filic.) when occupying wet rocks
in the Auckland Islands has its fronds closely curled up, but when growing
in the forest interior of the same group they are quite flat. That the curled
fronds are not fixed I have shown by means of moist-air culture (1904,
pp. 266, 267). Suppose that H. multifidum was only found on a wind-
swept treeless island, such as Macquarie Island, no one would question
the curled frond being normal and fixed.
(e.) Myoporum laetum Forst. f. (Myoporac.) is nearly always a small
round-headed coastal tree having a distinct erect trunk, but on Moko Hinou
Island it is altogether prostrate, and its branches far-spreading, cord-like,
and twiggy. Were it not that I have seen intermediate forms on some
parts of the North Island coast I could hardly believe that the Moko Hinou
plant was not a stable form.
(/.) Myrtus pedunculata Hook. f. (Myrtac.) is generally either a small
tree or a twiggy erect shrub,% but at an altitude of some 1,200 m. in the
Nothofagus forest of the volcanic plateau, North Island, it is frequently
quite prostrate and rooting. StypheUa fasciculala Diels (Epacrid.), although
nearly always an erect shrub as a forest-plant, behaves exactly as the last-
named in the same station. On dunes it is also frequently prostrate.
(g.) Dracophyllum politum Cockayne (Epacrid.) when growing on the
mountains of Stewart Island is a turf-making shrub, a low spreading shrub
with stout horizontal branches, or a massive ball-like cushion plant, accord-
ing to circumstances. So different are these various forms that I can
hardly yet believe them to be merely environmental unfixed forms of one
another§ and that my observation is not faulty.
(h.) Gleichenia dicarpa R. Br. and G. circinata Sw. (Filic.) differ speci-
fically in the former having the margins of the segments of the pinnae in-
curved so as to be pouch-shaped, whereas those of the latter are virtually
flat. But the same individual of the var. hecistophylla Hook. f. will possess
* This plant has been merged with P. rigidum Hook. f. A diagnosis has not yet
been published, owing to lack of sufficient material, but it is necessary here to use a
definite name, since P. rigidum and P. divaricatum are certainly distinct entities. (See
Plate I.)
t For further details, see Cockayne, 1901, pp. 265-67, and Diels, 1906, pp. 66-69.
% It is possible that the tree and shrub are different species, but I hardly think
so, though I have not seen intermediates.
§ See Cockayne, 1909, p. 16, and photo No. 13, facing p. 17.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 15
some pinnae with pouches and others quite flat, in accordance with, the degree
of illumination to which they are exposed. In fact, here the specific dis-
tinction does not hold — it is merely epharmonic — and the latest name must
be abandoned ; nor can the two " species " be maintained even as " varieties."
(i.) Discaria toumatou Raoul (Rhamnac.) when growing in positions
subject to the attacks of rabbits may form low green cushions made up of
leafy spineless shoots. " Normally " it is a stiff branching shrub furnished
with abundant spines.
Many more examples could be cited, but the above show clearly enough
how unstable species may be, even when growing under natural conditions.
When experimental methods are brought into play the effects from plasticity
become still more striking. For example, spine-production may be sup-
pressed in Discaria toumatou ; true leaves may be produced in the whip-
cord veronicas and species of Carmichaelia (Legum.) ; rolled leaves made
flat,* and vice versa ; cushion plants opened out widely. Undoubtedly
a series of experiments such, as those of Klebs (1903) would yield results
equally surprising.
It can be seen from the above that this uncertainty as to " normal "
form opens up room for great doubt in all discussions regarding the origin
of permanent adaptations, for it may quite well be asserted that absolute
fixity does not exist. It seems to me all that can be done is to consider
as " normal " those forms which predominate and represent the general
growth-form of the bulk of the individuals ; but assuredly in no few cases
there is no normal form at all.
3. Response to Ecological Factors.
Warming has summed up the state of knowledge on this head up to
the date of publication of his admirable " Oecology of Plants" (Warming,
1909, pp. 16-81), so that only a few local examples are necessary here.
First of all, it must be emphatically pointed out that it is virtually
impossible in the field, where so many ecological factors are concerned,
to say which is the predisposing cause of the internal response of the
plant. Generally more than one factor will be concerned.
(a.) Soil.
Excess of salt leads to succulence, as in certain salt-meadow species
which become less succulent as members of non-halophytic formations.
The introduced Silene anglica L. develops more succulent leaves when
growing near the sea than inland. Miss Cross examined the anatomy of
certain salt-meadow plants and those of the same species grown in ordinary
soil in a greenhouse. Her figures show considerable differences in thick-
ness of leaves, but other factors besides want of salt doubtless affected
the result (1910, pp. 569-71).
The soil near hot springs containing excess of sulphur, &c, inhibits
the erect shrub form of Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich., which then occurs
only in the prostrate form.
Lack of nutritive salts in sand -plains near the mouth of the River Rangi-
tikei and elsewhere changes the leaf-form of Selliera radicans Cav. (Gooden).
This is in accordance with the much more carefully conducted observations
* la the case of Olearia cymlifolia Hook. f. the much revolute, boat-shaped leave
become flat with moist-air culture, and what was considered an important specifi
character, distinguishing the " species " from O. nummviarifolia Hook, f., vanishes.
16 Transactions.
of Massart, which are supported by soil-analyses (1910, pp. 156-65). The
prostrate habit of certain shrubs of dime-hollows in the north of Auckland
may, in part, be similarly explained.
Acid peat soils favour the cushion and other xeromorphic growth-forms,
though mesophytic forms may also occur.*
Phyllachne clavigera F. Muell. (Stylid.), and doubtless its allies of similar
cushion-form, can be made of much looser growth by moist-air culture
(Cockayne 1909a, p. 201).
The shoots of Cotula Haastii T. Kirk (Compos.), one part of a plant rooted
in deep soil, and another part on rotten rock or shallow soil, exhibit certain
striking differences. These are chiefly in degree of intensity of characters.
The portion in shallow soil has smaller leaves, stiffer stems, more glands, and
the leaf-segments closer. The leaves are of a darker green, and are marked
with brown on the lower half, whereas there is no trace of brown on the
deep-rooting portion. A dune form of Acaena microphylla Hook. f. behaves
similarly in my garden, the leaves of non-rooting shoots being much smaller
than those of rooted shoots and broadly margined with brown, the " normal "
leaves being lighter green and faintly brown at the apices of the teeth at
most. This presence or absence of a dark colouring-matter would appear
of small importance were it not that dark-coloured leaves are a rather
frequent characteristic of New Zealand plants.
Plants exposed to drifting sand may develop an upward growth. Thus,
Poa caespitosa Forst. f., although a steppe tussock-grass, when growing
on drifting sand in Central Otago gets more or less a sand-binding form.
So, too, with Phormium tenax Forst. and Arundo conspicua Forst. f. on
coastal dunes, though both are commonly swamp-plants.
Scirpus frondosus Banks & Sol., a sand -binding plant of the most
extreme type, is not only endemic, but belongs to an endemic subgenus
(Desmoschoenus). Not only has this plant attained its growth-form in an
isolated dune-area, but, as Mr. E. B. Oliver suggests in a letter to me,
possibly in actual competition with the Australian Spinifex hirsutus Labill.
At one place in Puhipuhi Valley, Seaward Kaikoura Mountains, nearly
all the species, both indigenous and introduced, growing on cold, wet, lime-
stone soil exhibit marked variegation, but beyond this tdaphic influence
they are of the normal green.
Highly manured soil, as is well known in cultivation, acts powerfully
upon plant-form. In nature the same occurs. Plants of Sicyos australis
Endl. growing on ground manured by Puffinus sphcnurus in the Kermadec
Islands frequently produce male flowers in which " the petals turn green,
and assume more or less the shape and character of foliage leaves " (Oliver,
R. B., 1910, p. 132). Certain species appear confined to soil of the above
character — e.g., Senecio antipodus T. Kirk, of Antipodes Island, and Cotula,
Feather stonri F. Muell.. of Chatham Island.
(b.) Light.
The bright light of dunes probably leads to the red- or orange-coloured
stems of the rush-like Leptocarpus simplex A. Rich (Restiac), which are
green in the shade, and as salt-swamp plants not nearly so brilliantly
coloured. It is a moot point how far the reddish, yellowish, or brownish
hue of certain true dune-plants may be considered fixed and hereditary
* See on this head Bum*, 1911, pp. 121,124. Xerophytes are confined to certain
zones in the bogs studied, the largest bog-areas being hydrophytic or mesophytic.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 17
{?.g., Scirpus frondosus Banks & Sol., Coprosma acerosa A. Cunn., Gunnera
arenaria Cheesem., Euphorbia glauca Forst. f.).
An interesting case is that of Lycopodium ramulosum T. Kirk, a plant
forming extensive patches on moors in the west of the South Island and
Stewart Island, the sporophylls of which are absent or scantily produced
in shade plants, but extremely abundant in those growing in bright light.
Many young trees in the forest assume a special form with a slender
main stem and few branches, which are confined to its upper portion.
Similarly, the xerophytic fern Pteridium esculentum Cockayne becomes in a
dim light a scrambling liane. An example observed by Mr. H. Carse and
myself was growing amongst tall, slender Leptospermum scoparium on Reef
Point, north-west Auckland. Some of the fronds were more than 3 m. in
length. Pinnae were absent until the brighter light was gained. The final
portion of the rhachis was green and succulent, and the distance between
the pinnae 46 cm. These latter were still coiled up and quite rudimentary,
although the largest was 25 cm. long. The rhachis was twisted — i.e., it
showed a tendency to twine.
Shade — and here probably comes in moisture in" the air — increases the
size of leaves, changes certain xerophytes into mesophytes : e.g., species
of Carmichaelia, Discaria toumatou. Podocarpus nivalis Hook., as may be
plainly seen from Plate IV, responds markedly to changes in illumination,
the shade form resembling P. totara much more than the species which it
really is. The specimens were collected within a few feet of one another.
The lie of the leaf is regulated by the light. Olearia insignis Hook, f.,
a shrub of dry rocks in Marlborough, arches its branches upwards to a sur-
prising degree, thus bringing its leaf rosettes into a suitable position with
regard to the light. This habit persists in plants raised from seed and
grown on flat ground.
(c.) Wind.
Wind is a most important factor in New Zealand. First comes the
'' wind-shearing " action, which is in part a physiological process ; it is
well marked in trees and shrubs of exposed positions, and may be frequently
seen in Podocarpus totara D. Don., Leptospermum scopariurn, Forst., and
many other plants. The prostrate habit is encouraged by wind ; but here
other factors may enter in, as cold and acid soil. Coprosma foetidissima
Forst. is usually a tall forest-shrub, but when a member of the tussock-
moor association of the Auckland Islands (Cockayne, 1909a, pp. 200, 201,
and 219) it is prostrate and twiggy. The prostrate form of Leptospermum
scoparium on the subalpine moors of Stewart Island is another and remark-
able example. Well-developed prostrate trunks are to be seen in Metro-
sideros lucida Menz. (Myrtac.) in the Auckland Islands, Stewart Island, and
the Southern Alps, and in Olearia ilicifolia Hook. f. (Compos.) in some sub-
alpine forests of the South Island. Reduction in size of leaves must often
be attributed to wind-action.
(d.) Water.
Plants of still or slowly running water are subjected to a fairly con-
stant environment.* Cotula coronopifolia L., as a land-plant, is a herb with
branched, prostrate, more or less rooting stems, the branches of which are
erect or semi-erect ; the internodes are short ; the leaves are rather
fleshy, more or less lanceolate in outline, and pinnatifid, lobed, toothed, or
sometimes entire ; the roots are, at most, of a moderate length. As a
* Of course, the position of the plant with regard to the surface, the nature of the
substratum, and other factors exercise a considerable influence.
18 Transactions.
water-plant, the stem is straight, unbranched, and perhaps 40cm. long; the
internodes are long ; the leaves linear and entire, and the roots numerous
and 30— 10 cm. long ; when the shoot rises above the water-surface it
branches, and the leaves are much as in the land-plant.
Not only the leaves but also the inflorescence differ greatly in size in
the land and water forms of the introduced Badieula Nasturtium -aquaticum
Brit. & Rend.
Specially moist air causes the production of aereal roots on the stems
of certain whipcord veronicas.
Schefflera digitata Forst. (Araliac), a low forest tree or shrub, when
growing in certain damp gullies of northern Auckland produces sometimes
leaves much more deeply cut than the normal.
The moist-gully form and the dry- or acid-ground form of Bkcknum
capense Schlcht. (Filic.) are so distinct in appearance that many might
consider them distinct species.
(e.) Altitude.
Altitude is a complex combination of factors which sometimes produces
striking differences in the same species, according to the height at which
the individuals grow.
A very common feature is diminution of stature with increase of alti-
tude, though this is not so with all species. The trees Dacrydium cupres-
sinum Sol., Weinmannia racemosa Linn, f., and Griselinia littoralis Raoul
are much reduced in size when forming a part of the mountain-scrub of
Stewart Island, the two latter eventually becoming small shrubs.
On the other hand, if the lowlands can offer an equivalent environment
to that of the mountains — though, of course, it can never be actually
identical — alpine plants may occur at sea-level,, their forms differing not
at all from those at an altitude of 600 m., 900 m., or considerably higher.
The lowland moor of Stewart Island contains various alpine plants of
this character — e.g., Celmisia argentea T. Kirk, Astelia linearis Hook, f.,
Dracophyllum politum Cockayne, Carpha alpina R. Br., Donatia novae-
zelandiae Hook, f., Caltha novae-zelandiae Hook, f., Gaimardia ciliata
Hook. f. (For full list, see Cockayne, 1909, p. 27.)
1. After-effect of Stimuli.
It is most important with regard to the question of the ultimate heredity
of changes in form and structure, &c, brought about by an internal re-
sponse of the plant to stimuli from without to inquire as to definite
examples where the form, &c, persists for a reasonably long time after
the stimulus is removed. The following cases bear on this subject : —
1. A prostrate form of a species of Coprosma (Rubiac), which originally
grew on acid peat on the Chatham Island tableland, was cultivated by
me in a pot for three years, and then in ordinary garden-soil in a garden
for four years more, during the whole of which time the prostrate habit
remained. But all on a sudden, during the eighth year, it commenced
to put forth erect shoots, and but for its unfortunate destruction would
undoubtedly by this time have been on erect shrub. So assured was I
that this plant would remain prostrate or stunted that I published cer-
tain remarks to that effect (1907, p. 378). So, too, with a stunted form
of another species of Coprosma, perhaps C. cuneata Hook, f., collected
by me in 1903 in Antipodes Island. This was grown on the rockery at
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 19
Canterbury College for six years and kept its habit, but later on it too com-
menced to put forth erect shoots.
2. Coprosma Baueri Endl. when growing on a sea-cliff is a straggling
shrub, more or less closely flattened to the rock-surface, and puts forth
nothing but long spreading horizontal shoots. Such plants bear flowers
and fruit. This growth-form of the species may be referred to wind, and
perhaps heat. But when C. Baueri grows in a coastal forest, or even when
isolated on loamy clay, it is a tree with a stout trunk. Plants which I raised
from seed, and which are now growing in the experiment-ground at Canter-
bury College, possess long spreading horizontal shoots— i.e., they are of
the shrub form, as above; but they are also developing erect shoots, and,
if permitted, they will eventually grow into trees (see Plate II, fig 2). Here
it is possible that the prostrate form is inherited from the race of rock-
frequenting plants. But the stimulus has not been sufficient to make a
really permanent race, and so the prostrate form only occurs during an
early stage in the ontogeny of the individual. Similar cases of partial
heredity are dealt with further on when treating of prolonged juvenile
forms.
3. Olearia Lyallii Hook. f. (Compos.) forms a pure forest on some of
the New Zealand subantarctic isknds. A striking feature is the prostrate
or semi-prostrate trunk, which may be referred to wind, a peat soil, and
perhaps a uniform low temperature. In the interior of the forest, no
matter how boisterous is the wind without, it is quite calm, and yet the
seedlings are nearly always more or less prostrate at first. So, too, with
the seedlings of 0. Colensoi Hook. f. when growing on the mountains of
Stewart Island.
4. The case of Sophora microphylla Ait. and S. prostrata Buchanan :
This is fully discussed in this paper under the heading " Persistent Juvenile
Forms " (p. 25), to which it may be well perhaps for the reader to turn
and consider the case in relation to the point under discussion.
It would be beyond the scope of this paper to mention in detail instances
of after-effect of stimuli in places other than New Zealand, but it is well
to briefly enumerate a few of the more striking. Such are Schiibler's
cereals, which, grown in a northern climate, ripened their seeds earlier even
when cultivated in southern countries ; Cieslar's conifers, whose seeds,
collected in the Alps, when sown on the plains produced plants of slow
growth and small diameter ; Klebs's Veronica and Sempervivum, whose
striking abnormalities of inflorescence were repeated in plants raised from
seed ; Blaringhem's races of maize and barley originating from plants pur-
posely damaged in a specific manner (Blaringhem, 1907) ; Zederbauer's
experience with a form of Capsella Bursa-pastoris from an altitude of
2,000-2,400 m. in Asia Minor, which through four generations in Vienna
maintained in part the special alpine stamp ; and MacDougal's ovarial
treatments, where one new induced form has maintained its character, so
far, up to the fifth generation (see MacDougal. 1911, pp. 56, 57).
5. Convergent Epharmony.
From what has gone before, it is plain that various growth-forms of
New Zealand plants may be referred with confidence to stimuli from outer
factors. It has been seen also that of such forms some are merely environ-
mental; but there are others, now to be dealt with, which are hereditary,
and remain constant, unless perhaps when exposed to such a change of
conditions as they would not encounter in nature.
20 Transactions.
It is a fact of the greatest significance that identical growth-forms are found
side by side amongst species belonging to unrelated families. The import-
ance of this occurrence is still more emphasized by the fact that other
species in far-distant parts of the earth, growing under approximately
similar conditions, may likewise possess the same epharmonic forms. That
there should be this convergent epharmony, as it is called, seems to lend
the strongest support to the view that the effect of an outer stimulus upon
the plant, such as light, heat, &c, may become hereditary.
Only a few characteristic growth-forms receive attention here, and the
treatment of these is quite brief. A few others are dealt with when treat-
ing of the genus Veronica (p. 44).
(a.) The Divaricating Shrub Form.
This very common New Zealand growth-form consists of much -branched
often stiff and wiry stems which are pressed closely together or even
interlaced, the branching being frequently at almost a right angle (see
Plate III, fig. 2). Although I do not know of any example where wind has
brought an exact replica of this form, a wind-shorn shrub is closely related.
.Still more close is the unstable form assumed by certain lianes in the open
(e.g., Rubus, Muehteyibeckia* and Clematis) which grow in company with true
divaricating shrubs. Further, the relation to shrubs of an open growth
is exhibited by the already mentioned Corokia Cotoneaster and Pittosporum
divaricatum, when they grow as forest-plants. Suttonia divaricata Hook. f.
(Myrsinac.) is virtually fixed under all circumstances, though in the forest-
it may have a slender trunk.
The ecological factors governing this growth-form appear to be wind,
in the first place, and then various other xerophytic stimuli, of which soil
must play an important part.
The most instructive case of convergent epharmony in these plants
is in the scrub of certain South Island montane river-terraces or river-
beds, where so greatly do many of the species resemble one another that
it is quite easy to confuse them. The following is an actual combina-
tion : Pittosporum divaricatum Cockayne (Pittosp.), Rubus subpauperatus
Cockayne (Rosac), Discaria toumatou Raoul (Rhamnac), Aristotelia fruc-
ticosa Hook. f. (Elaeocarp.), Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. var. alpina
T. Kirk (Violac), Corokia Cotoneaster Raoul (Cornac), Coprosma propinqua
A. Cunn., C. parviflora Hook. f. (Rubiac). Hymenanthera would frequently
be absent or confined to specially stony ground. There would also pro-
bably be one or more species of Veronica and Carmichaelia, but their
growth -forms are different.
The divaricating growth-form also occurs in the following families :
Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Leguminosae, Rutaceae, Icacinaceae, Mal-
vaceae, Mysinaceae, and Compositae — i.e., in fifteen families altogether, all
of which have likewise members with altogether different growth-forms.
Generallv speaking, the earlier juvenile form of these plants is mesophytic.
(b.) The Cushion Form.
Every transition exists between the open circular mat-like form and
dense unyielding cushions. It is merely a question of degree in reduc-
tion of internodes and closeness of growth. The genus Gelmisia shows
* M . Astoni Pet ric. most closely related to the liane. M. complexa, is a divaricating
shrub.
Trans. N.Z Inst., Vol XLIV.
Plate III.
BH
&3&k^
Fig. 1. — Soi;hora mh.rophylla.
Juvenile divaricating form.
Fig. 2. — Pittosporum dxvaricatum.
A shrub of the divaricating growth- form.
Face p. HO.]
Tkans. \.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV
Piaie IV
PODOCARPUS NIVALIS.
On left, shade form; on right, sun form. Plants from Otira Gorge.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 21
straggling mats in G. discolor Hook. f. and G. Walkeri T. Kirk, loose circular
cushions in G. viscosa Hook, f., and true dense cushions in C. sessiliflora
Hook. f. and C. argentea T. Kirk.
Frequently the epharmony of such cushions can be seen clearly in one
and the same species, as in the tiny taxad Dacrydium laxifolium Hook, f.,
which forms cushions on dry pumice at 1,200 m. altitude near Mount Rua-
pehu, but which growing amongst other shrubs under more mesophytic
conditions is frequently a straggling shrub, or when in colonies on sour
peaty ground merely a close turf.
The cushion form culminates in the great amorphous masses of certain
species of Psychrophyton and Hoastia, which grow on alpine rocks* exposed
to sun, frost, and wind, or at times, in the case of R. Goyeni T. Kirk, of
Stewart Island, on wet peat.
Excepting with regard to the physiologically different bryophyte cushions
of moors or wet forests, the cushion form is governed by strong xero-
phytic conditions, and the same species may thrive either in physically or
physiologically dry stations — e.g., Phyllachne Colensoi Berggren (Stylid.),
Psychrophyton Goyeni Beauverd (Compos.).
The form under consideration occurs in the following families : Taxaceae,
Gramineae, Gyperaceae, Centrokpidaceae, Xuncaeeae, Portulacaceae, Caryo-
phyllaceae, Leguminosae, Violaceae, Thymelaeaceae, Umbelli ferae, Bora-
ginaceae, Scrophularinaceae, Plantaginaceae, Stylidiaceae, and Gompositae.
Epharmonically similar cushions occur amongst different genera and
families in high mountains everywhere. Certain erect shrubs when wind-
swept become virtually cushions.
(c.) Lianes.
Climbing-plants have most certainly descended from non -climbing species
which through shade and moisture have grown upwards out of the lower
tiers of vegetation in a stratified association. Many transitions between
climbing and non-climbing plants can be observed, and these, considered
along with the heredity of the climbing habit and its strong differentiation,
afford weighty support to a belief in the heredity of epharmonic characters.
The fern Hypolepis distans Hook. , which generally gives no hint of a pro-
pensity to climb, when growing alongside a support may lengthen its fronds
for considerably more than 1 m., though at this length they would fall but
for the support. On the rhachis are minute excrescences, which, though
certainly not adaptations for the purpose, f assist the frond to maintain
its position. The climbing form of Pteridium esculentum, already noted,
is specially interesting because of its hint at winding. So, too, with the
scrambling liane Lycopodium volubile Forst. f., which, gaining a thin support,
winds freely, the winding being in this case an hereditary characteristic.
The case of Fuchsia Colensoi Hook, f., already mentioned, is of especial
moment. This is a shrub in the open, and at times a scrambling liane in
the forest. There can be little doubt that this latter habit is hereditary
to some extent, and it is possible that there may be climbing and non-
climbing races. This is the more likely as the " species " is considered
variable, and large forms are said to " almost pass into F. excorticata "
(Cheeseman, 1906, p. 187), which is a small tree or shrub, but never a liane.
* Maastia pidvinaris appears to grow on shingle-slip, and not on rock, so far as I
have observed ; but I am also advised that at times it grows on rock.
f Strictly speaking, there is no " purpose :' in any adaptations, but it is often con-
venient to speak teleologically.
22 Transaction*.
In the case of Rubus cissoides A. Cunn. var. pauperatus T. Kirk there
is no question of distinct races, although there are certainly two epharmonic
growth-forms. The one is a high-climbing liane growing in forests. It is
provided more or less abundantly with leaves, and produces plenty of
flowers and fruit. But in the open, on hillsides fully exposed to wind and
sun. it forms rounded bushes of interlacing twigs, has its leaves reduced
to midribs, and never produces flowers. It is, in fact, a xerophytic form,
governed by the non-forest conditions, and its presence depends upon
seeds being brought from the forest-plant by birds. Seedlings raised by
me from the forest-plant were leafy in an early seedling stage* ; this was
followed by the epharmonic leafless form, which, although hereditary,
can only persist so long as xerophytic conditions are maintained. Plants
growing in the shelter of a cliff may have a few leafy shoots which can bear
flowers and fruit. Rubus subpauperatus Cockayne, closely related both as a
species and as a growth-form, has also a forest form and a xerophytic form,
but in this case both produce flowers. The adult flowering forms of the
root-climbing banes Metrosideros scandens Sol. and M. florida Sm. may
become shrubs in the open, an analogous case to that of the artificially
raised tree-ivy of gardens. It is highly probable that other climbing
species of the genus behave in a»similar manner.
The genus Clematis is represented by eight species^ in New Zealand.
All are more or less variable, and some of the species appear to " run into "
one another. Six may be considered mesophytes ; they are forest-plants,
or some climb amongst shrubs. These species are abundantly furnished
with leaves. But the var. rutaefolia Hook. f. of C. Colensoi Hook. f. grows
under more xerophytic conditions, and, in accordance with these, it is
smaller than the type, the leaves are more cut and present less transpiring
surface ; perhaps it is a fixed form. C. marata is subxerophytic ; it grows
in the open, frequently climbing into the branches of the xerophytic Dis-
caria toumatou ; its stems are slender, brownish-green, pubescent, and
interlaced, and its leaves much reduced. Finally. C. afoliata Buchanan
is a true xerophyte ; it is virtually leafless ; the stems are green and func-
tion as leaves ; they are rush-like, grooved, have the stomata in the
grooves, and are generally closely intertwined — i.e., the growth-form is
identical with that of the above Rubus, and approximates to the divari-
cating form. The seedling has plenty of leaves, and when the adult
grows in the forest this ' juvenile state may persist and even flower. It
must be remembered that this range of forms of Clematis, which vary
from forest mesophytes to an almost divaricating leafless shrub form, are
all presumably descended from one ancestor, and that even now many
are connected by intermediates, while one species is epharmonically meso-
phytic or xerophytic, according to its station.
(d.) The Prostrate Form.
There are various modifications of the prostrate form, which depend
chiefly upon closeness of branching and rooting-capacity. Here there are
only mentioned those with more or less straggling stems, which may or
may not bear adventitious roots. On certain subalpine moors a number
* See also figs. 229, 230, Goebel, 1905, pp. 353, 354.
-j- C. quadribracteolata Col. is omitted, as it seems to me merely a variant of G. marata
J. B. Armstrong. Nor do I know anything regarding the vars. depauperata Hook. f.
and trilobata Kirk of C. parviflora A. Cunn.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV
Plate V.
i
Fig. 1. — Veronica chathamica.
Cutting planted vertically but growing horizontally, thus showing an hereditary
character.
Fig 2.
1. Veronica loganioides. 2. V. cassinioides. 3. Reversion Shoot of V. tetragona.
4. V. TETRAGONA. X 3.
Face }). 22. \
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate VI.
Fig. 1. — Sophora tetraptera.
Young tree of Chatham Island form growing erect with straight branches.
Fig. 2. — Sophora tetraptera.
Seedlings of Chatham Island form.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 23
of plants of this class may grow side by side belonging to the genera Dacry-
dium, Podocarpus (Taxac), Leptospermum (Myrtac), Styphelia (Epacrid.),
Coprosma (Rubiac), Veronica (Scrophular.), and Celmisia (Compos.). In
some cases the prostrate form is here hereditary, while in others it is unfixed
and depends merely upon the station.
The combination of species forming the shrub steppe on the subalpine
volcanic plateau, North Island, contains a considerable percentage of
prostrate shrubs, some of which are more or less erect under less xero-
phytic conditions.
Coastal rocks favour the prostrate form. Thus in such a situation
near Island Bay, Wellington, there are Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f.
(more or less hereditary), Coprosma Baueri Endl. (hereditary when juvenile),
Veronica macroura Hook. f. var.* (perhaps hereditary when juvenile but
erect when adult).
Other veronicas of coastal rocks are more or less prostrate, and this
is strongly hereditary in V. chaihamica Buchanan — so much so that a shoot
grown verticallv in a pot quickly assumed the horizontal direction (see
Plate V, fig. 1).
An interesting instance of non-hereditary convergent epharmony of
this growth-form is the wiry undergrowth of three species of Coprosma
beneath the tussocks of Danthonia antarctica Hook. f. at some 250 m.
altitude in Auckland Island. One of the species, C. foetidissima, is
" normally " a tall twiggy shrub, and the other two are medium-sized
divaricating shrubs.
6. Persistent Juvenile Forms. "f
About two hundred species of New Zealand vascular plants, belonging
to thirty-seven families, show a more or less well-marked distinction
between the juvenile and adult stages of development, while in perhaps
one hundred species the differences are very great indeed. The most
interesting cases are those in which a juvenile form remains permanent
for a number of years, so that in its ontogeny the individual passes through
two, or even more, distinct stages, and not infrequently through two
* I am inclined to think it would be better to consider' this a species. It differs
considerably from the typical form, which grows in the East Cape district.
f Heteroblastic development is a world-wide phenomenon which has not received
nearly the attention it deserves from writers on evolution. It is its occurrence in so
many endemic species in New Zealand that makes data from this region of special interest.
In 1879 I. Bayley Balfour recorded a number of striking examples from the Island of
Rodriquez — e.g., Clerodendron laciniatum Balf. f., reminding one of the New Zealand
Nothopanax simplex Seem. ; Pyrostria trilocidaris Balf. f. ; Fernelia buxi folia Lam., a
rubiaeeous plant, evidently when juvenile somewhat of the divaricating shrub form :
and Mathurina pendidiflora Balf. f. (Turnerac), which has long narrow juvenile and
broad adult leaves, as in Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn. and other New Zealand plants.
Altogether seventeen species of trees and shrubs and one herb out of 175 species of
spermophytes show marked dimorphism. Goebel (1889-93) gives a number of examples
of heterophylly, &c, referring the phenomena in some instances to direct outer stimuli,
and he deals further with the matter in his " Organography of Plants " (19CC-5) and
his " Experimen telle Morphologie " (1908). Diels (190G) goes into the matter at con-
siderable length, using many important illustrations from his observations in Western
Australia. As for the phenomenon in New Zealand, Hooker was the first to refer to it,
in his splendid " Introductory Essay to the New Zealand Flora " (1853, p. 1). Kirk gives
many details in his " Forest Flora " (1889), and these are supplemented by Cheeseman
in his Manual. Finally, my own writings since 1899 contain a good deal of scattered
information not previously published.
24
Transactions.
growth-forms. Although the juvenile and adult forms may be so dis-
tinct as to virtually represent different species, yet in many cases the adult
does not appear suddenly, but intermediate stages occur. In these there
is very frequently a combination of characters which are primarily quite
distinct. Thus in the intermediate leaf-form of Parsonsia capsularis E. Br.
(see fig. 2) there are all kinds of combinations between the early seedling
short rounded leaf and the later long narrow one. Elaeocarpus Hookerianus
Raoul also exhibits a remarkable series of leaf-combinations, for which
see fig. 3. Further, there are transitions of general growth-forms, as when
Sophora microphylla Ait. commences the adult stage with stout semi-erect
but still flexuous stems. It seems clear from the above facts and from
those that follow that the possibilities of both juvenile and adult are
latent in the one plant, but each requires its necessary stimulus to set it
free in its entirety. If the stimulus is not sufficient, then one or the other
t VP» f
\
Fig. 2. — Various Forms op Leaf in Parsonsia heterophylla.
a, adult leaf ; / and g, earliest form of leaf, but often more circular ; d, e, and h, tran-
sitional forms ; b and c, second type of juvenile leaf. Life size.
form may persist, or there may be a combination of characters, as in the
transitional forms. In any case, heredity comes in, and this has attained
to such a degree that under normal conditions there is a juvenile stage of a
certain average duration, a transitional stage, and an adult. Different
degrees of heredity have arisen, as I believe, in proportion to the length
of time the original stimuli have functioned, combined with their intensity,
and abnormal increase or decrease of stimulus can in many instances
hasten or retard the procession of events. There is in some measure, per-
haps, species-making going on before our eyes. This is best seen in those
cases where the juvenile form produces flowers, for if progressive develop-
ment should cease at this point what is virtually a species distinct from
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 25
the adult has appeared. Should such a flowering juvenile form be ephar-
monic, then, as Diels has shown, we are face to face with a case of onto-
genetic evolution (1906). In some of the species the juvenile and adult
forms can both clearly be shown to be epharmonic (e.g., Veronica lyc&po-
dioides Hook, f., Carmichaelia subulata T. Kirk, Discaria toumatou Raoulr
Potamogeton Cheesemanii A. Bennett, Clematis afoliata Buchanan) ; they
can even be experimentally produced or prolonged. In other cases ephar-
mony can only be inferred (Sophora microphyUa, Podocarpus dacrydioides?
Rubus schmidelioides) ; and in others it is more or less obscure (Parsonsia
heterophylla, Pseudopanax crassifolium C. Koch, Pittosporum patulum
Hook. f.). There is, therefore, a gradual gradation from the known to the
unknown, but, as the main features are alike throughout, it is reasonable
to assume an epharmonic origin in most cases, notwithstanding that con-
tradictory examples occur, and to consider that there is a relation between
the age of the form and its relative stability. Here there is no attempt
to go thoroughly into the phenomenon under consideration ; certain typical
examples are alone discussed.
The significance of the divaricating growth-form has been already noted.
It may be remembered it is eminently xerophytic, extremely well defined,
and present in various unrelated families. But this form is not confined
to shrubs alone, but appears as a persistent juvenile stage in the life-history
of certain plants, which are thus xerophytic shrubs for some years and
finally ordinary mesophytic forest-trees. The. following are examples :
Pennantia corymbosa Forst. (Icacinac), Hoheria angustifolia Raoul, Plagi-
anthus betulinus A. Cunn. (Malvac), Sophora microphyUa Ait. (Legum.),
Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul (Elaeocarp.).
The case of Sophora microphyUa Ait. is the most instructive. It must
be considered along with the remaining species — S. tetraptera* J. Mill.,
S. grandiflora Salisb., and *S. prostrata Buchanan. All the species com-
mence with hypogeal cotyledons, and the first, or first two, leaves are
simple and arrested structures, but the succeeding ones are pinnate and
of the adult type. The primary stem is erect and somewhat flexuous (see
Plate VI, fig. 2), except in the case of S. grandiflora. This species
continues to grow erect, and in time develops into a small tree. There
is no heterophylly beyond the early simple leaves, and no hint even of
any xerophytic shrub stage. With S. microphyUa the progress of events
is very different. Here the early seedling soon develops into a xerophytic
divaricating shrub, and so it will remain for some ten years or more, and
attain a height of perhaps 1-4 m. before the more or less erect branches
shoot upwards, the forerunners of the mesophytic tree form (see Plate III,
fig. 1). It is quite common to see a specimen which is shrub at the
base and tree above. Occasionally the upper part of the shrub form will
blossom, but I do not think this ever happens before the tree itself
flowers. Sophora prostrata never grows out of the shrub state ; it is a fixed
juvenile form, which, moreover, reproduces itself true from seed. Between
S. microphyUa, and S. prostrata there are intermediates. With regard
to *S. tetraptera, the juvenile plant differs but little from the adult (see
Plate VI, fig. 1), though it has for a time a few flexuous twigs. I have
* Under this name I include the Chatham Island plant, a form in the neighbour-
hood of Auckland City, and the Chilian plant. As for the Auckland plant, I do not
know its juvenile state well enough to speak with certainty, but in any case its behaviour,
if different from that stated, would not in any way affect my conclusions.
26 Transactions.
seen only one specimen raised from Chilian seed,* and it resembles closely
the Chatham Island plant. S. microphylla and S. prostrata grow side by
side at the lower Waimakariri Gorge, Canterbury Plain.
In the above case of Sophora the adult form is probably the stem form,
and the xerophytic divaricating shrub form an epharmonic adaptation
which arose during a probable period of drought on the east of the Southern
Alps at the time of the glacial period (see Diels. 1896, and Cockayne, 1900).
In certain parts of the problematical Greater New Zealand where the
climate still remained sufficiently wet the ancestral Sophora would re-
main unchanged ; so we still see S. grandiflora in the East Cape district
and S. tetraptera in the Auckland district and the Chatham Islands. In
the South Island there is only S. microphylla and S. prostrata, in the former
of which the xerophytic stimulus never evoked an absolutely hereditary
form, whereas in the latter the effect of the stimulus is much more deep-
seated. To what extent such a stimulus can leave its mark is shown in
the forest-tree Elaeocarpus Hookerianus, which at any age may put forth
reversion shoots high up the trunk or on the branches. The heteromorphy
in the other species listed above may be similarly explained. There is
first of all a short-lived erect mesophytic stage, then a long-persisting
xerophytic stage, and a final adult mesophytic stage. The first stage,
suited as it is to shelter by ground-plants, &c, is epharmonic ; it may
also be considered a survival from the ancestral plant. The second (xero-
phytic) stage was epharmonic during the steppe-climate period of the
eastern South Island, but is certainly beneficial no longer ;f and the adult
stage is more or less a return to the original form, but now called forth by
the present mesophytic conditions. According to this supposition, it is
considered that the tendency to both xerophytic and mesophytic form
is latent in the plant, and that one or the other will appear as soon as
the necessary intensity of stimulus is reached. Until that is the case,
whichever form is the more hereditary — i.e., the more strongly fixed —
will persist, even though it is far from being epharmonic.
In a considerable number of instances there is a mesophytic juvenile
stage and a xerophytic adult. In this class the present mesophytic con-
ditions are not sufficient to inhibit the strongly hereditary xerophytic
form, which also in a number of cases is in harmony with the xerophytic
stations affected by these plants. The following examples of this and other
persistent juvenile forms may be noted : — >
(1.) Shrubs which are leafy as juveniles, *but leafless as adults, when
they have flat or terete green assimilating stems — e.g., species of Car-
michaelia,% Notospartium, and Corallospartium. How unstable really is
the xerophily of many species of Carmichaelia is shown by their abundant
production of leaves in shady stations.
(2.) Shrubs with an abundance of leaves, sometimes very thin, when
juvenile, but of the cupressoid form when adult — e.g., certain Taxaceae
(see Griff en, 1908), whipcord veronicas, and some species of Helichrysum
belonging to the section Ozothamnus.
* The seed was very kindly sent to me by Dr. Eug. Autran, of Buenos Ayres, and
the seedlings were raised by Mr. T. W. Adams, to whom I am greatly indebted.
t The divaricating form of Elaeocarpus Hookerianus and the juvenile Pseudopanax
crassifoliwm, with its thick, narrow, stiff, defiexed leaves, certainly seem out of place in
a rain forest, where they are assuredly not epharmonic structures.
% Carmichaelia gracilis J. B. Armstrong is leafy in the adult ; it is a scrambling
iane, and grows in wet ground or swamps. C. grandiflora Hook. f. is deciduous, but
abundantly leafy in spring and summer. G. odorata Colenso is also leafy.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol XLIV.
Plate VII.
Fig. 1. — Aristotelia fruticosa.
On left, juvenile ; on right, adult.
432.*?
Face p. 86.]
Fig. 2. — Pennantia corymbosa.
On left, adult ; on right, semi-juvenile in bloom.
Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIV.
Plate VIII.
X
- M
o ■*;
0 M
H -
gq
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 27
The juvenile stage . in these plants, the Taxaceae excepted, does not
usually persist for any long period, and may be compared to the first stage
in Sophora and the various divaricating shrubs. But in the veronicas, as
I have shown, it can be made to persist artificially for years, so long as
the plant is kept in moist air. Further, reversion shoots are frequent
even on such a typical xerophyte as Helichrysum Selago, while it seems
probable that hereditary semi-juvenile races occur of Veronica tetraqonai.
Hook, and V. lycopodioides* Hook. f. These are further dealt with on
p. 45. In the case of Dacrydium laxifolium Hook, f., a prostrate or
suberect mountain-shrub, growing in wet ground or bogs, it is quite com-
mon to find juvenile plants with the lax spreading leaves blooming freely,
and never developing into the cupressoid adult. The juvenile stage of
D. intermedium T. Kirk frequently becomes a tree, and flowers and fruits
as abundantly as the " normal " adult growing in the same swamp forest.
This flowering juvenile was given the varietal name gracilis by Kirk.
(3.) Nearly all the divaricating shrubs have a primary juvenile meso-
phytic stage. This is generally but transitory, but I have already shown
in the case of Pittosporum divaricatum and Corokia Cotoneaster how the
early stage may persist in the forest and reach its full stature. Semi-
juvenile plants of the Pittosporum may also flower.
Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f. (Elaeocarp.) is an interesting case. The
early seedling is erect, mesophytic, and, compared with the adult, shows
a most remarkable variety of leaves. These are often more or less lanceo-
late, toothed, lobed, or pinnatifid (see Plate VII, fig. 1). Later on the
divaricating form appears, which may finally be of the most intense cha-
racter, the small frequently more or less oblong leaves being scanty, and
the ultimate shoots almost spinous. f But this form is not truly stable,
plants growing in an adjacent Nothofagus forest being much more meso-
phytic. Even when quite in the open, there are forms still divaricating
to some extent, it is true, but juvenile so far as leaf-form goes, and these
develop no further, and blossom. This semi- juvenile fixed form should
be considered older than the " normal " adult, and it may represent the
pre-glacial plant.
Suttonia divaricata Hook, f., so far as I have observed, has no seedling
mesophytic stage. But even this " well-fixed " species when growing on
the Poor Knights Islands has leaves three times the size of those of the
usual stations.
(4.) Nothopanax simplex Seem, and N. Edgerleyi Harms. (Araliac.) have
also a mesophytic juvenile form, but the adult must be considered meso-
phytic likewise. Both are rain-forest plants, while the former is found
also in certain subalpine scrub. I have not full details regarding N. Edger-
leyi, the juvenile form of which sometimes so closely resembles that of
N. simplex that I, for one, cannot distinguish between them, so my remarks
are confined to the latter species. The early stage has a fern-like, much-
cut, thin and large leaf. This is succeeded by a second stage with ternate
* Cheeseman found a semi-juvenile form of V. tetrarjona at the base of Tongariro
and Ruapehu, and writes (1908, p. 281), " Probably it is an intermediate state between
the juvenile stage and the fully matured one, but if so it must persist for many years."
Mr. Poppelwell collected a form of whipcord Veronica on the Garvie Mountains, a plant
of which has kept the semi- juvenile form for two years in my garden. So, too, from
some notes sent to me by Mr. F. G. Gibbs it is evident that he has had in cultivation a
very similar plant.
f Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. var. alpina T. Kirk also develops 6emi-spines under
very dry conditions.
28 Transactions.
leaves, and this by the simple- and thicker-leaved adult. In some localities
the much-cut form is suppressed to some extent, or almost entirely absent
(Auckland Islands ; but see Cockayne, 1904, p. 249,* and pi. 11). The
closely related Nothopanax parvum Cockayne also seems to lack a cut-
leaved stage. N. anomalum Seem., although frequently a forest-plant,
has a juvenile mesophytic form with small ternate leaves and an adult
divaricating shrub form connecting the ternate-leaved form of the genus
with the divaricating shrubs.
(5.) In this class come a considerable number of plants which cannot
with any confidence be referred in their different stages to special outer
factors. Take the case of certain species of Pseudopanax (Araliac.) : two
(P. crassifolium C. Koch and P. ferox T. Kirk) have the curious narrow
deflexed juvenile leaves and unbranched stem, but in P. lineare C. Koch,
a subalpine shrub, the virtually similar juvenile leaves are erect ; and in
P. chathamicum T. Kirk they are wanting altogether, the juvenile and
adult leaves not being very different.
The primary seedling leaves of P. crassifolium are somewhat similar in
form to the adult, but, of course, much smaller. They are erect, and never
deflexed. P. ferox, on the contrary, commences with narrow-linear toothed
leaves of the second stage, which are not erect, but horizontal for a time.
The small-leaved juvenile and the large-leaved adult forms of the root-
climbing fern Blechnum filiforme Ettingsh. cannot be explained ephar-
monically, though there probably is, or has been, some relation of the sort,
since the first-named is the common ground form (creeping form) and the
large-leaved the climbing form. Nor can I suggest any explanation of the
two juvenile leaf-forms of Parsonsia heterophylla and P. capsularis R. Br.
(see fig. 2). In the former species the long narrow-leaved shoots occasion-
ally flower, and in the latter there is a fixed flowering juvenile race occur-
ring in the uplands of the South Island which I consider a distinct species.
Weinmannia racemosa L. f. and W. sylvicola Sol. (Cunoniac.) are two
closely related species whose flowers are virtually identical, and which
differ merely in the adult leaf of the first-named being entire and of the
other compound. The early seedlings of both are identical ; they are
erect, their leaves are simple, toothed, thin, and hairy. Then comes a second
stage, in which in W. racemosa the leaves are ternate, and in W. sylvicola
both ternate or pinnate. At this stage, when both plants are merely bushy
shrubs, they can flower, and need not develop into trees. Frequently on
the heath lands of northern Auckland W. sylvicola attains 3-4 m. in height ;
the leaves are large, and have many leaflets, yellowish in colour, and
although Mr. H. Carse, myself, and others have seen hundreds of these tall
juvenile plants we have never seen them in flower. Ackama rosaefolia
A. Cunn. (Cunon.), if not actually a companion plant, grows near by on
the forest's outskirts, &c, and its adult form so much resembles this juvenile
Weinmannia that no one could distinguish flowerless examples one from
the other without a knowledge of certain quite obscure differences. f The
adults of the two species of Weinmannia are lofty forest-trees. From the
above it seems reasonable to conclude that W . sylvicola is merely a fixed
* Through a clerical error " eutire-leaved " is printed several times instead of " simple
leaves." The leaves are more or less serrate, but compared with the juvenile they are
virtually " entire."
f The distinctions given by Kirk in the "Forest Flora," p. 113, do not hold in
practice, so far as the leaf is concerned.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 29
juvenile stage of W. racemosa, or else that the former is the stem form and
W. racemosa a mutation or an epharmonic variant that has become fixed.
Several instances of juvenile blossoming have already been given. The
following are additional examples : — Ranunculus Li/allii Hook. f. (the juve-
nile has a reniform leaf and the adult a peltate ; reversion leaves occur
as a result of bad nutrition ; there are intermediates between the two
types of leaves) : Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. (the juvenile
seems to me identical with P. nigrescens Hort.,* the plant so much used in
certain parts of New Zealand for hedges ; as a hedge -plant the juvenile
form is alone to be seen, it being preserved by the constant cutting!) :
Clematis indivisa Willd. : Dracophyllum arboreum Cockayne : Agaihis aus-
tralis Salisb. : Nothopanax Edgerleyi Harms, (one semi-juvenile form blooms
and is the var. serratum T. Kirk) : and Anisotome filifolia Cockayne and
Laing. There are also a number of forest-trees which remain in the shrub
stage and flower (see Cockayne, 1908, p. 22).
Each of the above cases would need deciding on its merits as to whether
the flowering juvenile might be the beginning of a new line of descent, or
was merely a reversion. I will only discuss the case of Anisotome filifolia
Cockayne and Laing.
This is an herb with the leaves in an erect rosette and a long tap-root
which grows upon stony debris where there is a steppe climate in the moun-
tains of Nelson, Marlborough, and Canterbury. The leaves are grassy,
some 20 cm. long, ternately divided into segments which are filiform if
the plant grows in the open, but 3 mm. broad, or broader, when growing
in the shade. Both forms produce flowers. Seedlings raised from the fili-
form xerophytic form had broad segments (see fig. 38, pi. 12, in Cockayne,
1900, and also pp. 295 97). The broad leaves are certainly beneficial for
promoting rapid growth in a dry station, nor will the seedling be exposed
to as rigorous surroundings as the adult, protected as it will be by the
stones. Its form is therefore epharmonic. The broad-leaved adult of
the shade is then a flowering juvenile, which may or may not be " fixed,"
but, if fixed, it would be an example of ontogenetic evolution, the arrival
of the new species dating from the first time the juvenile plant reproduced
its like from seed.
Many of these heteroblastic species put forth when adult typical juvenile
or semi-juvenile shoots, as the case may be. Such may often be traced to
a special stimulus. Thus, stems of Phyllocladus alpinus Hook. f. when
prostrate on wet soil may bear abundance of true leaves, but those in a
drier position have phylloclades only ; Discaria toumatou Raoul cropped
by rabbits produces leafy shoots onlyj ; and Ranunculus Li/allii Hook. f.
grown in dry soil under unfavourable conditions may develop a certain
number of reniform seedling leaves.
The position of the reversion shoots upon the plant differs in different
species. Very often they are confined to near the base, in which case they
may be merely developed resting buds. Pseudopanax crassifolium C. Koch
and Weinman-ma racemosa L. f. when cut to the ground regenerate from
the stump by means of juvenile shoots. Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks &
Sol., as a hedge-plant, remains permanently juvenile through frequent
* H. M. Hall (1910) is of the same opinion.
f Other species of Pittosporum also occur at times in these hedges through the
sowing of mixed seed, and so other forms of leaf may be occasionally present.
% I noted one adult plant growing on a sand-dime that was almost, if not entirely,
without spines, the xerophytic station notwithstanding.
30
Transactions
clipping. The shrubby bases so frequently seen of Pennantia corymbosa
Forst., Hoheria angustijoUa Raoul, &c, above which the flowering and
quite different adult rises, are not very long-lived, but finally die and
are cast off. In some cases the distinction between juvenile and adult is
equally great, as in the above, but the stability of each form is weaker, and
the power of the cell derived through heredity to produce one or the other
is present in every shoot, no matter how far from the base, reminding one
somewhat of the behaviour of
a " graft hybrid." Examples are :
Dracophyllum arboreum Cockayne,
whipcord veronicas, Podocarpus
dacrydioides A. Rich, Aristotelia
fruticosa Hook. f. In Elaeocarpus
H ookerianus Raoul reversion
shoots occur high up the tree,
but I have not noted them in
the uppermost branches. In these
last-cited examples an observable
stimulus does not seem necessary
to bring forth the special form ;
it is rather as if very little indeed
— probably some slight internal
change — can suffice to upset the
equilibrium of the cell upon which
one or the other form depends.
An analogous example is a varie-
gated form of Veronica salicijolia
which originated spontaneously in
the garden of the late Mr. W.
Gray, of Governor's Bay, for many
years an enthusiastic cultivator of
New Zealand plants. The first
leaves of each shoot have an irregu-
lar band of green down the centre
of every leaf, but as these become
older chlorophyll gradually invades
the pale portion until the leaf becomes normally green. Shade leaves are
at first without any chlorophyll.
Fig. 3.
Leaf-forms of Elaeocakpus
hookerianus.
a,
small adult leaf ; b, transition to adult ;
c and d, early long narrow form ; e, /,
and ij, early obovate short form. The
long narrow and short obovate or rotund
leaves are associated with divaricating
branching. Life size.
VI. Hybridization.
Hardly anything is known as to the occurrence of wild hybrids in New
Zealand. But field observations on this head are, in any case, merely
suggestive, and, at most, pave the way for experiment.
Long ago hybrids were raised in cultivation by Mr. Anderson Henry
and others in Great Britain from some of the large-leaved lowland species
of Veronica. What I take to be hybrids — one especially from V. pime-
leoides Hook. f. — have originated spontaneously in the semi- wild collection
of indigenous plants in the Christchurch Domain. Mr. D. L. Poppelwell has
sent me a hybrid from his garden which he considers V . salicijolia x V. de-
cumbens. It is somewhat of the salicijolia type, but with small glossy leaves ;
I have not seen the flowers. Recently Mr. A. Lindsay, of Edinburgh,
has raised one or two hybrids of which the parents are known. The
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 31
most important of these is V. Hectori Hook. f. (a "whipcord veronica")
x V. pimeleoides Hook. f. (a small glaucous-leaved straggling rock-plant with
blue flowers), and the result is a plant said to be identical with or
near to V. epacridea Hook. f. If this is true, it opens up much suspicion
as to the validity of many species of the genus in New Zealand, and, at
any rate, in the case of variation in general, as some of the species are
gynodioecious,* hybridism may be the simple explanation.
Mr. Mclntyre, who had charge of the famous collection of New Zealand
plants of the late Mr. H. J. Matthews, raised a good many hybrid forms
of Celmisia, all of which appeared to have the so-called C. verbascifolia^ as
one of the parents. I have seen a Celmisia on Jack's Pass which was most
likely a hybrid between C. spectabilis and G. coriacea. Also, C. mollis
Cockayne is possibly of hybrid origin, with C. spectabilis as a parent. In
short, hybridization may account for some of the variation in Celmisia.
Acaena, again, is a very variable genus, which suggests hybridization.
Buchanan was the first to call attention to this matter, and he described
a supposed hybrid between A. Sanguisorbae Vahl. and the introduced
A. ovina A. Cunn. (1871, p. 208). Kirk reduced this to var. ambigua of
A. ovina, notwithstanding that the inflorescence is altogether different from
that of that species. Bitter (1911, pp. 297-321) describes fifteen hybrid
forms of Acaena, illustrated by figures of leaves, in which varieties of
A. Sanguisorbae, A. microphylla, and A. glabra are parents, one or the other.
Tnese forms have originated spontaneously in the Bremen and other Con-
tinental botanical gardens. Bitter is convinced they are true hybrids, and
that the only question that can be raised is as to the parentage that he
suggests for them. A full account is given of each form.
I have seen, judging from the capsule, what appear to be wild
hybrids between Phormium tenax Forst. and P. Cookianum Le Jolis.
A good deal of the variation in P. tenax may be due to hybrid ele-
mentary species, for that it is made up of many such entities seems very
probable. J
Melicope Mantellii Buchanan is supposed by some to be a hybrid
between M. simplex A. Cunn. and M. ternata Forst. (see Kirk, 1889, p. 118).
I have proved that it comes true from seed, and in the absence of experi-
mental evidence it is quite as reasonable to suppose it is an elementary
species connecting M. simplex and M. ternata. All three have ternate
juvenile leaves ; M. ternata remains at this stage but with much larger adult
leaves, M. Mantellii has both simple and ternate leaves in the adult, and
M. simplex is a divaricating shrub when adult with simple leaves.
VII. The Struggle for Existence.
Plant-ecologists have many opportunities for observing various phases
of the struggle for existence. They have also some opportunity of judging
* I am indebted to Professor I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., for calling my attention
to this phenomenon in our veronicas, which he was the first to discover. I had pre-
viously wondered why certain species in my garden never produced seed, and others
very little, and had ascribed it to the absence of the proper pollinating insect. How
far the phenomenon is present in wild plants has not been as yet ascertained.
t Probably C. verbascifolia Hook. f. = C. Brownii Chapman.
% The Chatham Island form, with its thin broad leaves, is distinct, so far as I know,
rom any of the mainland forms.
32 Transactions.
as to the likelihood of extremely small* variations being preserved or the
contrary. It must be understood that the " struggle " is not only between
the individuals of the competing species, but also between these and their
environment. This was distinctly stated by Darwin, who refers to the
struggle for life against the drought on the edge of a desert (1899, p. 46).
In manv instances this struggle with outer circumstances is the more im-
portant ; it is also the deciding factor as to what plant-form can gain a
rooting in the first instance.
The formations themselves offer various conditions according as they
are " open " or " closed," for in the former there is apparently room for
new-comers, whereas in the latter it is almost impossible for a species
from without to gain admittance. This fact is of major importance,
for, amongst other matters, it has a strong bearing on the much-debated
question regarding former land connections with distant islands as op-
posed to bird carriage, &c, across wide"\ areas of ocean. The case of
New Zealand as a whole is of great interest in this regard, especially
as many misstatements;}: have crept into evolutionary writings regarding
the spread of the introduced plants and their rapid ' replacement " of
the indigenous flora. I will state briefly what I believe to be the true
state of affairs.
There have been recorded for New Zealand up to the present some 555
species of introduced plants, but less than 180 can be considered common,
whilst others are local, rare, or even not truly established as wild plants.
Many at first sight appear better suited to the soil and climate than are the
indigenous species, and over much of the land they give the characteristic
stamp to the vegetation ; but this is only the case ivhere draining, cultivation,
constant burning of forest, scrub, and tussock, and the grazing of a multitude
of domestic animals have made absolutely new edaphic conditions which ap-
proximate to those of Europe, and where it is no wonder that the European
* During the discussion following the reading of this paper the expression " ex-
tremely small " was criticized as not giving a fair representation of the views of Darwin
and his followers. Darwin, however, writes (1889) — p. 45, " Variations, however slight " ;
p. 58, " any advantage, however slight " ; p. 59, " extremely slight modifications " ;
p. 69, " individual differences, too slight to be appreciated by us." Weismann puts
the case more strongly still (1910, p. 25) : " For the question is not merely whether
finished adaptations have selection value, but whether the first beginnings of these,
and whether the small, I might almost say minimal, increments which have led up from
these beginnings to the perfect adaptation have also had selection value." Wallace,
on the other hand (1889, pp. 126, 127), claims that though Darwin used the word " slight "
and " small amount," these terms are " hardly justified," since the variability of
many important species is of considerable amount, and may very often be properly
described as large.
t The case of Krakatoa, important as it otherwise is, seems to me to have
but little bearing on this question, since the distance from the mainland is too
trifling.
% Wallace (1889, pp. 28, 29) refers to Tri folium repem exterminating Phormium
tenux; excellent pasture destroyed in three years by Hypochoeris radicata, which can
even drive out white clover; and Sonchvs oleracens growing all over the country up to
an elevation of 6,000ft. Kirk (1896, p. 18) not only attributes the "displacement "
ot Phormium to grasses and clovers, but also Mariscus ustulatus, and even Pteridivm
escidentum (bracken fern). Further on (p. 19) he states that Aciphylla Colensoi is
gradually replaced by self-sown pasturage plants. However, he also calls attention
to the effect of grazing and trampling by cattle and horses as aiding the plants
in their work, which, of course, is a very different matter from the effect of plants
alone.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 33
invader can replace the aboriginal.* On the other hand, although this
foreign host is present in its millions, and notwithstanding abundant winds
and land-birds, f the indigenous vegetation is still virgin and the introduced
plants altogether absent where grazing animals have no access and where fires
have never been. On certain subalpine herb-fields the indigenous form of
the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Wigg.) is abundant, and yet the in-
troduced form, with its readily wind - borne fruit, has not gained a foot-
hold, nor even the abundant Hypochoeris radicata L., though it may be in
thousands on the neighbouring tussock pasture, less than one mile away.
On Auckland Island introduced plants occur only in the neighbour-
hood of the depots for castaways, but on Enderby Island, where there are
cattle, they are much more widely spread. Even where the rain forest
has been felled or burnt, and cattle, &c, are kept away, it is gradually
replaced by indigenous trees and shrubs — i.e., in localities where the rain-
fall is sufficient.
Some of the indigenous species are quite as aggressive, or even more
so, than any of the introduced. In primeval New Zealand each would have
its place in the association to which it belonged — there would be no aggres-
sion ; but when the balance of nature was upset by the fire or cultiva-
tion of Maori or European, then the plants best equipped for occupying
the new ground become dominant, their " adaptations " for that purpose
fortuitously present. The miles on miles of Leptospermum scoparium and
Pteridium esculentum were absent in primitive New Zealand. So, too, the
pastures of Danthonia semiannularis R. Br. J in Marlborough, and the many
acres of Chrysobactron Hookeri Colenso (Liliac.) in the lower mountain
region of Canterbury. Celmisia spectabilis Hook, f., an apparently highly
specialized herb for alpine fell-field or tussock-steppe conditions, is now
on the increase in many montane parts of the Ashburton-Rakaia mountains
and valleys, owing to its being able to withstand fire, the buds being
protected by a close investment of wet decayed leaf-sheaths.
Nor are all the introduced species aggressive, by any means. Some
can barely hold their own ; others are limited to certain edaphic condi-
tions. Thus, Glaucium, flavum Crantz occurs, as yet, only on the coast
of Wellington, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Cook Strait. It is con-
fined to gravelly or stony shores, and appears unable to grow on the clay
hillside. And yet where the latter is, in one place near Lyall Bay, covered
with gravel there is a large colony of the plant, whence none have found
their way on to the adjacent hillside. Lupinus arboreus, now so common
on New Zealand dunes, appears unable to spread beyond the sandy ground.
The often-quoted stories (see footnote, p. 32) of white clover (Trifolium
repens L.) being able to wipe out Phormium tenax, of Salix babylonica over-
coming the watercress (Radicula Nasturtium-aquaticum), of Hypochoeris
* New Zealand may be roughly divided into three areas — viz., the cultivated, the
pasture lands, and the primitive. It is only in the pasture lands that a real struggle
between the introduced and the indigenous plants is taking place, and even there the con-
test is very unequal, through the grazing, burning, and seed-sowing factors. Many
pastures, however, are altogether new associations, as in the case of forest being felled,
then burned, and the ground sown with grasses, &c, even before the ashes of the tree*
are cooled, so that at once there is a foreign pasture brought into existence and subject
to an entirely new set of conditions from that which governed the forest. This is certainly
not biological " replacement."
f Introduced, not native, birds.
% The species may be D. pilosa, but I have no specimens for identification.
2— Trans.
34 Transactions.
radicala displacing every other plant of excellent pastures in Nelson, are
without foundation. P. tenax has certainly been eradicated in many places,
and perhaps, in a sense, replaced by white clover, but not until fire and feed-
ing of stock had killed the plant.
The great screes, called locally " shingle-slips/' which are such a
characteristic feature of mountain scenery in much of the South Island,
possess a most scanty and scattered vegetation, made up of some twenty-five
highly specialized species belonging to thirteen families, of which twenty
species occur in no other formation. Here the struggle between the indi-
viduals is nil, but that with the environment, especially the unstable sub-
stratum, is most severe. I know of no instance where a non-indigenous
plant has established itself on a true alpine shingle-slip.* In such a
station no plant could gain a footing unless provided beforehand with some
special " adaptations " fitting it for the severe conditions. The shingle-
slip association, moreover, is neither the climax of a succession nor is it part
of such ; it is an association complete in itself, and connected with no other.
Of a number of plants germinating by chance on a shingle-slip, the seedling
which possessed a slightly more xerophytic structure than its fellows would
be none the better, but would perish equally. Granting that natural selec-
tion can intensifyt characters by slow degrees, the conditions would select
too rigorously — there would be no survivors. It is almost equally diffi-
cult to see how epharmony could work, either. A plant to gain a shingle-
slip must come from some specially xerophytic station. This is shown
by the presence of Veronica epacridea Hook. f. and V. tetrasticha Hook, f.,
rock-xerophytes. Perhaps the true shingle -slip plant Craspedia alpina
Backh., a summer-green herb with leaves in rosettes and thickly covered
with a deep snow-white wool, also arrived from some other formation, and
its abundant wool and deciduous leaves have arisen epharmonically. The
dimorphic succulent Claytonia australasica Hook. f. also occurs elsewhere,
one form being found in cold streams and damp gravel. Its rapid response
to a xerophytic stimulus accounts for its presence.
The seedlings of the true shingle-slip plants are, so far as they have
been studied, strongly xerophytic at an early age. Thus an examination
of a seedling of Stellaria Roughii Hook. f. raised by me under mesophytic
conditions showed, " in the elastic stem, pale glaucous-green leaves, and
■early succulence of the seedling, how hereditary are the most striking
peculiarities of shingle-slip plants" (Cockayne, 1901, pp. 267-69).
An interesting point is the occurrence of two distinct species of
Cotula, or varieties of one species, it matters not, which are epharmonic-
ally equivalent. Taxonomically they differ in colour of florets, size of
flower-head, and size of involucre as compared with head. Accumula-
tive selection could do nothing here ; both plants thrive equally well, and
there is no competition except with the environment. Mutation alone
can explain this remarkable case, or some cause unknown. Another some-
what similar example is Notothlaspi rosulatum Hook. f. and N. australe
Hook. f. and its var. stellatum T. Kirk. Anisotome carnosula is in appear-
ance exactly like A. diver sifolia Cockayne, but there are technical differences
* Introduced plants occur at times on small screes at base of rocks, and on river-
terrace scree in the lower mountain belt.
f Weismann writes (191C, p. 01), "How often has the senseless objection being-
urged against selection that it can create nothing; it can only reject. . . . But in
rejecting one thing it preserves another, intensifies it, combines it, arid in this way
creates what was new."
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 35
in the umbel and the involucral bracts. A. diversifolia has been found so
far on only one mountain on which A. carnosula is not known to occur;
but the species are so much alike that they could only be recognized when
in bloom and examined closely.
To trace the evolution of the shingle-slip plants it seems clear that one
must go back to the origin of the shingle-slips themselves from their small
beginnings before the eastern peaks of the Southern Alps were disintegrated
into rounded summits. If for any reason the climate were wetter,* there
would be a similar condition of affairs to what governs the shingle-slips
of Westland to-day where true shingle-slip species are absent. On the
embryonic debris slopes many plants could settle down, and to the be-
liever in natural selection nothing could appear more probable than for
these to have been gradually changed in accordance with the slowly chang-
ing environment, species after species going to the wall, until only the
few highly differentiated should remain. Even these are absent over wide
areas of the most extensive and unstable of these alpine deserts.
An exactly similar argument to the above would apply to water forma-
tions, especially as there are cases where true water-plants — e.g., Pota-
mogeton Cheesemanii Bennett — flourish in situations where they are quite
uncovered for considerable periods. Even for unstable dunes, where there
is certainly no struggle between plant and plant, and where no non-sand -
binding form could possibly become established, a similar argument would
apply, since all degrees of sand-movement exist in a dune-area. But in
all the above cases we do know that ecological factors can evoke structures such
as are essential, and we do not know for a fact that selection can intensify a
character beyond a certain limit. In the tussock - grass Poa caespitosa the
power to respond to sand-movement is already present, although its
adaptations fit it for other conditions ; thus it has occupied the recent
drifting sands of Central Otago. Cases such as these, of stony debris,
water, and dune, should be decided not on preconceived opinions or
theories, but on the most reasonable conclusions from the observed facts.
Kock-vegetation, although open, affords plenty of scope for the struggle
for existence both between the individuals and with the environment,
since, leaving the lithophytes out of the question, the space for rock-crevice
plants is very limited.
On the recent roches moutonnees alongside the Franz Josef Glacier the
occupation of rock is now in progress. The pioneer plant is a dark-coloured
species of moss, which when it happens to grow in a crevice forms a soil,
an essential for the successful germination of seeds in such a station. The
first-comers are all plants of some neighbouring association, mostly xero-
phytes, some herbs, and other shrubs, or even trees, whose long roots can
penetrate into the chinks. Exceptions to this are the filmy fern Hymeno-
phyllum, multifidum. Swz., the epiphytic or rock-dwelling orchid Earina
autumnalis Hook, f., and Lycopodium varium R. Br. ; but it must be re-
membered the atmosphere is nearly always saturated with water-vapour.
The above first-comers react one upon another, the most vigorous finally
conquering ; but this vigour depends rather upon age than on greater
* Speight, in a carefully considered paper (1911), brings forward a good deal of very
suggestive evidence as to the probability of a wetter climate on the east than the pre-
sent one following the steppe climate. The most important fact adduced is the former
presence of extensive forests where steppe alone now exists, since such forest could only
te established during a period with many rainy days, and no other explanation seems
to fit the ease.
2*— Trans.
36 Transactions.
suitability for the station. At any rate, the chance for natural selection to
effect anything here is very remote, although the competition is powerful.
The number of true rock-plants in New Zealand is comparatively small ;
but, on the other hand, a great many xerophytes, and even mesophytes, are
encountered on dry rocks, but the latter are epharmonically modified during
their individual development.
Even hygrophytes may gain a footing, as already seen in the case of
Hymenophyllum, nmltifidum. The most striking and truly amazing case is
that of the kidney-fern (Trichomanes reniforme Forst. f.) and Hymeno-
phyllum sangutnolentum Sw., which grow in the full blaze of the sun upon
the lava of Rangitoto Island, Auckland Harbour. The fronds of both,
as T saw them on a hot summer's day, were dry and curled up so as to
appear dead, but Mr. Cheeseman informs me that in winter the kidney-
fern covers the rocks with its translucent fronds, and that those of summer
are not dead at all. It seems evident that in this case the protoplasm of
these ferns must behave similarly to that of many lichens, and this will be
an epharmonic adaptation. The question arises, does such a power lie latent
in these ferns as normal rain-forest plants, ferns which cannot tolerate a
drying wind or a hot sun and dry atmosphere ; and, if so, how can it have
possibly come about ? Probably the porous rock contains a good deal
of water, and the air is usually not dry. Although I do not think that
any modification through the struggle for existence takes place amongst
rock-plants, yet this case shows that one cannot tell but that the most
unlikely species might settle in certain stations, and so inaugurate a new
line of descent, no matter how the evolution be brought about.
In closed formations the struggle for existence between individuals is
very keen. As I write, in my garden, in a bed crowded with indigenous
plants, two rapidly growing and far-spreading Chatham Island herbs have
encountered, and one (Pratia arenaria Hook, f.) is rapidly replacing the
other (Cotula Muelleri T. Kirk), a happening quite in accordance with the
fact that the former plant is one of the most widely spread of the Chatham
Island plants. Reduced to its ultimate factors, the struggle is chiefly one
for nutriment in its widest sense, as Clements has shown (1905, p. 286) ;
there is little actual destruction of one plant by another, though they func-
tion indirectly by cutting off light, using up nutritive salts, &c. In some
cases the greater part of the struggle takes place amongst the young plants,
and it is on their adaptations, which may differ much from those of the
adult, that the establishment of the latter depends. This is specially evident
in those heteroblastic species already dealt with which have ecologically
different forms in their different stages. In a forest the conditions for
the seedling and sapling trees are very different from those to which the
adults are exposed. A favourable variation which might preserve a seed-
ling in the struggle with its environment would possibly have little to do
with the imperative demands of the adult. Small outward modifications
of a very few individuals could hardly be preserved in the dense growth
of saplings* in an upland forest of Nothofagus cliffortioides Oerst. The
chief requisite of success here is rapidity of growth, f a physiological
* The saplings may grow so closely that one can hardly foice a passage through
them.
f The case described in my little book, " New Zealand Plants and their Story,"
of a species of Eucalyptus overcoming the eminently aggressive Leptospermum scoparium,
through its more rapid growth, both germinating at the same time, is instructive in
this regard
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 37
characteristic that, however much intensified, could bring about no specific
differences unless correlated with structural change. In point of fact,
the deciding factor in the struggle amongst a close-growing mass of
these tree seedlings is probably age. Could all commence on exactly the
same footing, then the determining factor would be the situation with
regard to the food-supply and the illumination, and no slight beneficial
modification would count in comparison.
As for the adult forest-trees, each has, as a rule, its own rooting-place,
and its death depends chiefly upon its . age, partly upon some disease
or other, and but little upon the superior adaptations of its neigh-
bour. Its growth-form, certainly, does have something to do with its
longevity, as where spreading branches favour the presence of abundant
epiphytes, whose weight may lead to damage and permit the attack of
fungi.
A mixed rain forest, apart from modifications due to the nature of the
topography, might be expected to offer constant conditions extending
over a considerable period. But this is not so ; topographically similar
parts of a forest may show dissimilar undergrowth, the result of conditions
which, similar at first, become dissimilar as the vegetation develops. Thus
in the Waipoua Kauri Forest, of which I made a special study, a state
of change ruled. In one part there was little undergrowth, and in another
part such in abundance. This latter, in time, will, through survival of the
fittest, change into forest with little undergrowth. These are two climaxes,
and are expressions of the light factor, the dense undergrowth denoting
the maximum and the final open forest with the close roof the minimum
of illumination. Between these two climaxes there are many transitions.
Bring in more light still and so increase the xerophily, the hygrophytes will
go to the wall, until, with excess of light, a transition forest and finally
a Leptospermum heath will be established (Cockayne, 1908, p. 30). From
the above it follows that, even were natural selection at work amongst the
young plants of any species, owing to the varying change of conditions
brought about by these plants themselves there would be an insufficient
length of time for any more suitable variety to arise, or, if such selection
were very rapid, different types would be selected within a quite limited
area. The believer in the efficacy of epharmonic variation would say that
forest-trees have arisen from shrubs, or vice versa, owing to the stimulus
of edaphic, climatic, and other factors, and that selection operated by elimin-
ating those individuals which did not respond epharmonically at various
stages of the plants' development. And the special evidence put forth
would be that many species possess an unfixed epharmonic tree form and
shrub form, while it is known that stature and other features can be modified
through changes in nutrition. This, after all, is only Darwinian selection
plus an assigned cause for rapid and sometimes favourable modification* ;
but it is far from being neo-Darwinian selection.
VIII. Distribution of Speciks.
1. Distribution in General.
The distribution of species is primarily a matter of epharmony. Such,
however, must in certain cases be referred to a state of affairs no longer
* I do not mean to infer that all modification is favourable.
38 Transactions.
present,* as in various instances of restricted distribution. Heat is a factor
of prime importance, and, so, many species have a definite southern or
altitudinal limit beyond which they do not extend {e.g., Agathis, Ipomaea.
Veronica elliptica, Knightia, Senecio rotundifolius, &c). This is not because
they cannot exist quite well farther to the south, or at a higher altitude,
but that on approaching their heat-minimum they cannot compete with
the other better epharmonically suited competitors. Further, changes of
land-surface have affected distribution in some cases, especially where they
have caused permanent or temporary barriers.
The. annual number of rainy days is also a most important controlling
factor, and one whose effect is more plainly to be seen than that of heat.
The densely forested west of the South Island and the sparsely wooded
country beyond the average limit of the western rainfall to the east of the
main divide stand out in startling contrast. On the west the evergreen
canopy tree, and on the east the brown grass tussock, reflect in their respec-
tive dominance the prevailing ecological conditions. The slight differences,,
too, of the closely related Gaya Lyallii Hook. f. and G. ribifolia Cockayne
are excellent examples of quite small but distinctly epharmonicf distinc-
tions influencing distribution.
Wind is another most powerful factor in New Zealand. According to
their relative wind-tolerating power do certain shrubs, &c, replace one
another on the shores of Paterson's Inlet, Stewart Island, so that the shore-
line has become in its vegetation an exact index of the frequency and velo-
city of the wind. The above steppe district in the centre and east of the
South Island is governed quite as much by the wind as by its moderate
rainfall.
Quite common plants are extremely rare in certain localities. Cordy-
line australis Hook, f., a tree of physiognomic importance in many parts
of both the North and South Islands, occurs in only one locality in Stewart
Island. Leptospermum scoparium, usually so abundant, is represented by
but one or two individuals in the Chatham Islands, where there is the ideal
station for it to form a heath. J The tree-fern Hemitelia Smithii Hook.,
so abundant in Stewart Island, is confined, so far as known, to one gully
in Auckland Island. Psychrophyton eximium Beauverd is abundant on low
alpine rocks on Mount Torlesse, Canterbury, but is wanting in similar
stations on the range on the opposite side of the valley.
In some cases there is evidence that a plant has been much more
abundant, but has been replaced by another species. This is true " replace-
ment," and very different from the so-called replacement of indigenous
by introduced plants. Podocarpus spicatus R. Br. was an important
member of the Stewart Island forest, say, five hundred to a thousand years
ago. At the present time there remain only a few trees of that species,
but it is common to find old trunks of this taxad on which are growing
* It is plain from the very nature of the case that perfect harmony can never be
established between the growth-forms and the habitat, since change, progressive or
retrogressive, is a feature of all formations, and growth-forms once epharmonic will
persist long after their epharmonic relation is weakened or destroyed.
f G. Lyallii has larger, thinner, and much less hairy leaves than the eastern G. ribi-
folia. They have also drip-tips, which are frequently strongly developed. The juvenile
forms are somewhat similar in the two trees.
\ This term " heath " I have used in my writings in default of a better, well knowing
the formation is not truly analogous, except after fire, with the heaths of Europe. By
the settlers, when full grown, it is known as " manuka " or " tea-tree scrub." At this
stage it is rather forest than heath.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 39
full-sized trees of Weinmannia racemosa L. f. Sophora tetraptera J. Mill, is
restricted in Chatham Island to the forest on limestone near the shore of
the Te Whanga Lagoon, though elsewhere in New Zealand it can grow
abundantly on rock similar to that of the rest of Chatham Island. The
accompanying trees are the same in the limestone forest as in forest of the
island generally, but it is evident the volcanic rock of the remainder of
the island favours the other trees, which do not allow Sophora to become
established. Or it may be that Sophora is a comparatively recent arrival.*
The distribution of certain species shows that epharmony is by no means
so complete between plant and habitat in some cases as one might expect ;
or, in other words, that a plant can live in a position for which it is not
perfectly fitted. Thus, Mr. R. G. Robinson, Superintending Nurseryman
for the South Island, informs me that the dominant tree of the Tapanui
Forest, Nothofagus Menziesii Oerst., cannot be grown in the adjacent State
nursery, although N. jusca Oerst., a comparatively rare plant in that
locality, can be grown with extreme ease ; and yet I have seen N. Menziesii
growing quite well on the flanks of Ruapehu as an isolated tree in the open.f
The slow growth of many indigenous trees as compared with introduced
species is another case in point. On Antipodes Island the plant-associa-
tions are not distinguished by their different floristic components so much
as by the relative abundance of the different species. This word " abund-
ance " shows that all are not equally suited for each station, but that if a
plant settles down on ground not specially fitted for its requirements it may
be able to hold its place, the struggle for existence notwithstanding. So,
too, with various stations on the Auckland Islands. A highly specialized
species may thrive under conditions that might be deemed impossible.
Such a case is the already mentioned hygrophytic almost aquatic Tricho-
manes reniforme on the sun-baked rocks of Rangitoto. Here are a few
more examples : Crassula moschata Forst., a coastal halophytic herb, is
one of the pioneer plants in the heavily manured ground just abandoned
by penguins on the Snares Island. Colobanthus muscoides Hook, f., an
herbaceous dense cushion plant growing normally on coastal rocks, is an-
other early-comer on the above manured ground, but as conditions become
favourable for less manure-tolerating plants both are replaced, tussock
moor or Olearia forest being the climax association. Metrosideros scandens
Sol., a root-climbing woody forest-liane, grows in some places on rocks
close to the sea. G-riselinia lucida Forst. f., so far as I am aware always
either an epiphyte or a rock-plant, can be cultivated with ease as an
ordinary garden-shrub.
The presence of closely related species side by side in the same associa-
tion has a strong bearing on the mutation question, for it is reasonable
.to suppose with Leavitt (1907, pp. 210-12) that if natural selection, or
even epharmony, is responsible for species-making, only one type will be
present. As Leavitt writes, " Mutation breaks the species, and moment-
arily at least must give a polytypic aspect to the group within a specific
* H. H. Travers (1869) was of opinion that this tree was a very recent arrival,
especially as an old resident, Mr. Hunt, did not know it, and as he found a seed on the
shore of Pitt Island. I have given my reasons for be eving it an ancient constituent
of the flora (1902, pp. 270—71), and have seen no reason to change my opinion.
f The case may not be as strong as it appears, since the seedlings are shade-loving,
whereas those of N. fusca can tolerate far stronger light. There is also a fine tree in
the dry Christchurch Domain, where the climate is much more unsuitable for indigenous
forest-plants than Tapanui.
40 Transactions.
area " (loc. cit., p. 211). I cannot go fully into this important matter,
but the following are rather striking examples. Many would not consider
some of these plants " species," they are so close ; but so long as they are
distinct entities which reproduce themselves " true " they meet the case
as well or better.
Dracophyllum scoparium Hook, f., and another species considered by
Cheeseman a form of this species (1909, p. 420) but by Kirk a var. of
D. Urvilleanum, grow in the scrub of Campbell Islands. Celmisia vernicosa
Hook. f. and C. campbellensis Chapman, a very rare plant, grow side by
side in Auckland and Campbell Islands. Cotula Traillii T. Kirk, C. pul-
chella T. Kirk, and C. (obscura T. Kirk) ? grow together on coastal moor
near Foveaux Strait. Two " species " of Acaena grow side by side on
dunes in Southland : the one has more or less erect branches and long-
peduncled flowers — it may be a var. of A. microphylla Hook. f. ; the other
is pressed most tightly to the ground, and has almost sessile flowers — it is
A. microphylla var. pauciglochidiata Bitter. Both forms keep their dis-
tinctive characters for years when grown in garden-soil ; intermediate
forms occur amongst the wild plants which may be variants, mutants, or
hybrids. Cotula atrata Hook. f. and C. Dendyi Cockayne sp. ined. occur
on the same shingle-slip. Several absolutely distinct forms of Veronica
buxifolia Benth. grow pn the same subalpine herb-field (see Plate II.
fig. 1). Rubus parvus Buch. and R. Barheri Cockayne are in near
proximity in the neighbourhood of Lake Brunner, Westland. Nothofagus
fusca Oerst. and N. apiculata Cockayne grow in company in the forests
at Day's Bay (Wellington) and Kaikoura (Marlborough). Astelia linearis
Hook. f. and A. subulata Cheesem. grow side by side on mountain- moors in
Auckland and Stewart Islands. Raoulia australis Hook. f. and R. lutescens
Cockayne grow side by side on river-beds of the South Island Olearia
Colensoi Hook. f. and 0. Traillii T. Kirk grow mixed together in coastal
scrub in Stewart Island. Cassinia albida Cockayne, C. Vauvilliersii Hook, f.,
C. fulvida Hook, f., and other closely related intermediate forms grow mixed
on Mount Fyffe, Seaward Kaikoura Mountains. Two distinct forms of
Cassinia Vauvilliersii grow just above the forest-line in Auckland Island
(see Cockayne 1909a, p. 216). Cotula lanata Hook, f., C. propinqua Hook. f._
and C. plumosa Hook. f. grow side by side on the shore of Auckland and
Campbell Islands. Olearia ilicifolia Hook. f. and 0. mollis Cockayne grow
together in subalpine forest of Westland. Related Epilobia grow side by
side in many places ; some I know come true from seed. Poa foliosa
Hook. f. and P. Tennantiana grow close together in Auckland Island.
Celmisia sessiliflora Hook. f. and C. argentea T. Kirk grow side by side
on certain alpine moors of the southern botanical province. Nothopanax
simplex Seem, and N. parvum Cockayne are companion plants in the forest,
of Stewart Island and Westland. Carmichaelia Monroi Hook. f. and a
related but more robust species not yet described* grow side by side on
steppe and river-bed of the Canterbury Plain and eastern Southern Alps.
Coprosma Petriei Cheesem. has two forms, one with claret-coloured drupes,
and the other with faintly blue drupes ; they grow side by side on montane
steppe in the South Island. Coprosma Colensoi Hook. f. and C. Banksii
Petrie occur side by side in many forests. Ranunculus Lyallii Hook. f. and
* What I take to be this plant received the herbarium name of C. humilis from
D. Petrie many years ago. It has also been in cultivation along with C. Monroi Hook. f.
in the Ohristchurch Domain for a long period.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 41
a plant I considered R. Traversii, but which Cheeseman is of opinion is
either a hybrid* on a new species, grow together on the Snowcup Moun-
tains, Canterbury. Ranunculus Buchanani Hook. f. and the closely related
R. Matthewsii Cheesem. grow in company on certain alpine herb- or fell-
fields of western Otago. Anisotome pilifera Cockayne and Laing and its
var. pinnatifidum T. Kirk grow in company on peat-covered rocks, &c,
in the Southern Alps. Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich, and L. lineatum
Cockayne grow together on northern dunes. Coriaria angustissima Hook, f.,
C. thymifolia Hunt. & Bonpl., and C. ruscifolia L. grow in proximity on
Westland river-beds. Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. var. conspicua T. Kirk
and the var. maxima grow near one another on certain herb-fields or in
scrub on the Southern Alps. Two forms of Ourisia sessiliflora Hook, f.,
the one densely villous and with large flowers, f the other a smaller plant
in all its parts, the leaves darker green and less hairy and the flowers
fewer and smaller, occur on the same herb-field in the Southern Alps.
Pittosporum rigidum Hook. f. and P. divaricatum Cockayne (see Plate I)
occur in the same forest-area on the volcanic plateau. Sophora micro-
phylla Ait. and S. prostrata Buchanan grow side by side in the bed
of the River Waimakariri at the lower gorge. Doubtless a number of
other examples could be found. The coupled plants are in all cases so
closely related that they are considered by most New Zealand botanists
either varieties of one species, the type and a variety, or forms not worthy
of or that have not yet received a name. They are quite sufficient in
number to show that it is not unusual for closely related hereditary plant
entities to exist side by side for considerable periods.
The occurrence of distinct races of the same species at different points
of its area of distribution is known in a few cases. As Leavitt says, such
cases do not look like the work of mutation, nor can they be readily corre-
lated with epharmony. The following are two striking examples : Rubus
australis Forst. f. is a common plant both in forests and the open through-
out the North, South, and Stewart Islands. In the northern part of the
North Island it has, as a rule, much narrower leaves than in the southern
part of its range— so much so that typical plants from the two areas
have a very different appearance. The primary seedling-leaves seem to be
identical in both forms : these are ovate or ovate-lanceolate, and coarsely
toothed ; they are soon succeeded by narrow leaves, much resembling
those of R. parvus Buchanan, even as to their yellowish or slightlv brownish
marking. Seedlings growing in the forest-shade, and only 25-5 cm. tall,
bear these narrow juvenile leaves, thus showing the form to be inherited,
and not merely an epharmonic sun form. Since heredity is undoubted,
the northern form demands a name. Styphelia fasciculata (Forst. f.), a
heath-like small or tall shrub, extends from the North Cape to Canterbury
and Westland. The adult form varies but little throughout its range,
but the juvenile of the Auckland district has altogether broader leaves
than that of the south. An example of a more local character is that of
the mountain-herb Celmisia coriacea Hook, f., which from Mount Mau-
ngatua and other mountains in that part of Otago can be distinguished
at a glance as a cultivated plant from other specimens collected on the
* The occurrence of this plant on Walker's Pass far from R. Monroi Hook. f.
removes the suspicion of a hybrid origin, which Cheeseman adopted, partly at my own
suggestion in the first instance.
f To this plant I gave the MS. name of 0. splendida some year.s ago.
42 Transactions.
actual dividing-range. The lowland form of the plant growing near the
sea-cliffs at Charleston, west Nelson, is also distinct in appearance.
2. Isolation.
This special form of distribution is considered by some to be of the
greatest evolutionary importance. The New Zealand biological area offers
many ideal localities for geographical isolation, differing in degree, and it
is interesting to see as to how far they afford examples of related species
which appear to have either diverged recently from a stem form, or one
of them to be the actual parent plant.
(a.) The Kermadec Islands.
The total number of species of vascular plants is 114, of which twelve
are endemic* These latter, one excepted, are closely related to, and in
some instances almost identical with, New Zealand, Polynesian, or Norfolk
Island plants.
(b.) The Three Kings Islands.
There is strong geological evidence that at no distant date these islands
were united to the North Island. | The total number of species of vascular
plants is 143, of which five are endemic ; with these Alectryon excelsum
Gaertn. var. grandis Cheesem. may be included. Coprosma macrocarpa
Cheesem., one of the five, is related to C. grandifolia Hook, f., and more
distantly to C. robusta, both of which are present on the island. Pittosporum
Fairchildii Cheesem. is allied by P. crassifolium A. Cunn. and P. umbellatum
Banks & Sol. Veronica insularis Cheesem. is related to V. diosmaefolia
R. Cunn., a species of the neighbouring mainland, and Paratrophis Smithii
Cheesem. to P. opaea Brit. & Rend., while the fern Davallia Tasmani Field
is not allied to any New Zealand species. None of the endemic plants,
then, except the Alectryon, are particularly close to their mainland allies.
(c.) The North Cape.
This high promontory was undoubtedly quite recently an island. There
are three endemic plants — Halorrhagis cartilaginea Cheesem! (a near relative
of H. erecta Schind.), Geniostoma ligustri folium A. Cunn. var. crassuiu
Cheesem., J and Cassinia amoena Cheesem. (probably related to C. Vau-
villiersii Hook, f., but which latter is not found nearer than the volcanic
plateau).
(d.) Islands lying to the Eastward of Auckland.
Veronica Bollonsii Cockayne, a species closely related to V. macroura
Hook, f., is endemic on the Poor Knights Islands. Pittosporum inter-
medium T. Kirk, intermediate between P. tenuifolium Banks & Sol. and
P. ellipticum T. Kirk, is found only on Kawau Island ; only one plant
has been found, and this has been destroy ed.§
(e.) The Chatham Islands.
The total number of species plus named varieties is 236, of which thirty-
one are endemic. The genera Myosotidium and Coxella are endemic and
monotypic. The following is a list of the endemic plants ; those related
* See Oliver, 1910, p. 150.
t See Cheeseman, 1891, pp. 419, 420.
t Were not Mr. Cheeseman extremely cautious regarding the " creation " of
species, &c., I should suspect this to be simply an unstable xerophytic form not very
different from that with thick leaves common on the lava of Rangitoto Island.
§ Cheeseman might consider this a hybrid were it not that P. ellipticvm is not
known either in Kawau or the neighbourhood (1906, p. 54).
Cockatne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 43
more or less closely to New Zealand species are marked with an asterisk :
Adiantum affine Willd. var. chathamicum Field (Filic), *Poa chathamica
Petrie, Festuca Coxii Hack. (Gram.), *Carex appressa R. Br. var. sectoides
Kukenth., *Phormium tenax Forst. var. with broad thin drooping leaves
(Liliae), Geranium Traversii Hook. f. and var. elegans Cockayne (Geran.),
*Linum monogynum Forst. f. var. chathamicum Cockayne (Linac), *Plagi-
anthus betulinus A. Cunn. var. chathamicus Cockayne (Malvac), Aciphylla
Traversii Hook, f., Coxella Dieffenbachii Cheesem. (Umbel.), *Corokia
macrocarpa T. Kirk (Comae), *Styphelia robusta (Hook, f.), *Dracophyllum
arboreum Cockayne, *D. paludosum Cockayne (Epacrid.), *Suttonia Coxii
Cockayne (Myrsinac), *Gentiana chathamica Cheesem. (Gentian.), Veronica
Dieffenbachii Benth., V. Barkeri Cockayne, V. Dorrien-Smithii Cockayne,
V. chathamica Buch., *V. gigantea Cockayne (Scroph.), *Coprosma chat-
hamica Cockayne (Rubiae), *Olearia semidentata Dene., *0. chathamica
T. Kirk, 0. Traversii Hook, f., *Cotula Muelleri T. Kirk, C. Featherstonii
F. Muell., *Senecio radiolatus F. Muell., *S. Huntii F. Muell., *Sonchus
grandifolius T. Kirk (Compos.).
The nineteen " species " marked with an asterisk are closely related
to forms found elsewhere in New Zealand, while sixteen of these are very
close indeed. Veronica gigantea would certainly be considered a variety
of V. salicifolia Forst. were it not for its distinct juvenile form, which still
persists up to a stature of at least 80 cm., and its arboreal habit. It is the
only true forest-veronica, and it may be that the juvenile form is a direct
adaptation to forest-undergrowth conditions.
(f.) Stewart Island.
A number of species have, as yet, been collected only on Stewart Island,
but in the face of the fact that year by year shows more of the plants
thought to be endemic fairly common on the mainland, &c, it is quite
possible that the island contains no endemic species.
(g.) The Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand.
There are 195 species and named varieties, of which fifty-one ara
endemic, nineteen of these being closely related to New Zealand species.
No list is given here, as these endemic species are treated of by Cheese-
man with considerable detail (1909, pp. 463-66). With regard to special
endemism in the various groups, the Auckland Islands have six species,
the Campbells four, Antipodes Island four, Macquarie Island three, and the
Snares two.
(h. ) Isolation on the Main Islands.
Endemism is not confined to isolated islands, but the various floral
districts contain their peculiar species and forms. The most striking
examples are western Nelson and western Otago, with thirty-three and
thirty-eight endemic species respectively. The northern part of Auckland
(thirteen species), Marlborough (fourteen species), and other localities show
a distinct local endenrsm. It is obvious, then, that a strong endemism
can exist apart from such a barrier as a wide stretch of ocean. But figures
such as the above are not final ; further investigations may decrease or
even increase them. Also, it is certain that not all the species included
have originated in the " isolated " areas ; some of the most distinct have
probably been much more widely spread, and are " relics " merely.
The continuity of distribution of species of the New Zealand flora varies
from those with a fairly continuous distribution to those which occur in
only a few localities far distant from one another. Notable examples of
extreme discontinuity are : Danthonia antarctica Hook, f., common in
44 Transactions.
Auckland and Campbell Islands, but confined elsewhere to a few rocky point-
and small islands in the far north of the North Island ; Urtica austral)*
Hook, f., common in Chatham, Antipodes, and Auckland Islands, but in New
Zealand proper occurring only on Dog and Centre Islands, Foveaux Strait ;
Drosera pygmaea D.C., only recorded from near Kaitaia in the extreme
north and the Bluff Hill in the extreme south ; Pittosporum obcordatum
Raoul, occurs sparingly near Kaitaia, and Akaroa, Banks Peninsula ; Plagi-
anihus cymosus T. Kirk, only recorded from Dunedin, Lyttelton, some
of the Marlborough Sounds, and Kaitaia ; Suttonia chathamica Mez, com-
mon in the Chatham Islands, and found in two localities in Stewart Island :
Lepyrodia Traversii F. Muell., common in Chatham Island, and found in
certain bogs of the Waikato and at one locality near Kaitaia ; Styphelia
Richei Labill., common in Chatham Island, and found elsewhere only near
the North Cape ; Melicytus macrophyllus A. Cunn., common in certain
Auckland forests, but absent elsewhere, except one locality near Dunedin.
Other examples of discontinuous distribution, though more connected
than the above, include Elaeocharis sphacelata R. Br., Dracophyllum lati-
jolium A. Cunn., Clematis afoliata Buch., Quintinia acutifolia T. Kirk.
Celmisia Traversii Hook, f., Pseudopanax ferox T. Kirk, Carmichaelia
gracilis J. B. Armstg., Coprosma rubra Petrie, Veronica speciosa R. Cunn..
&c. Were there merely one or two cases the discontinuous distribution
might be attributed to chance, but as there are numerous cases, and as
these gradually merge into examples of greater and greater continuity,
it is probable that the species in most cases were at one time more widely
spread, and that in the extreme cases as above we are face to face with
the phenomenon of a species naturally on the verge of extinction.
IX. Evolution in the Genus Veronica in New Zealand.
The New Zealand flora, as already pointed out, possesses many genern
containing very " variable species," which are of much interest for evolu-
tionary studies. Of all such, Veronica is the most instructive, illustrating,
as it does, the general principles of evolution apart from any theories as
to method. ,
Cheeseman admits eighty-four species, but the view he takes is a most
conservative one, and probably without forsaking the ideals of orthodox
taxonomy some thirty more species could be conveniently added to the
ist. Were, however, that school of botany which is dealing with Rosa.
Rubus, Hieracium, and Crataegus in the Northern Hemisphere to study
the New Zealand forms, several hundreds of species would be forthwith
" created." Should this ever be done without experimental culture of
each proposed form the work will be biologically useless.
The species differ both epharmonically and floristically. The former
concerns distinctions between groups of forms rather than between species,
while the latter treats of the specific marks.
There are two main classes — the shrubby and the herbaceous — together
with the suffruticose. The multitude of forms, with but few exceptions,
are connected, and a great number more or less intergrade in a linear
series. There is every evidence, then, of descent from a common ancestor,
which, considering the genus beyond New Zealand as well as within its
confines, would probably be an herbaceous plant with a didymous capsule
such as V. (Jhamaedrys L. Further, the plasticity of many " species
and the astonishing variability suggest that changes of form are, bio-
logically speaking, in rapid progress at the present time.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 45
The New Zealand species, with but few exceptions, reproduce them-
selves readily and rapidly from seed, can be easily grown from cuttings,
and are not restricted to any special soil. Some respond quickly to change
of environment. The genus occurs in all parts of the New Zealand region,
except Antipodes and Macquarie Islands. It has representatives in almost
every plant formation, but there is only one true forest species (V. gigantea.
of Chatham Island). An analysis of distribution shows that seventeen
species are coastal, thirteen do not ascend beyond 300 m. altitude, ten to
between 300 m. and 900 m., thirteen to 900 m. and less than 1,200 m.,
and forty-three to that altitude and upwards, while fifty-two of the
ninety-six may be considered strictly mountain species.
Regarding their growth-forms, perhaps six species might be considered
herbaceous ; the remainder are all more or less woody, the great majority
being shrubs. Beyond New Zealand there is one shrubby Veronica in
Fuegia and the Falkland Islands, V. elliptica Forst. f., identical with or
closely related to one or other of that series of forms known as V. elliptica
in New Zealand, and V. formosa R. Br. and V. densifolia F. Muell. of
Tasmania and south-east Australia respectively.
Leaving the herbaceous cushion plants, formerly referred to the genus
Pygmaea, on one side for the present, the remainder of the herbaceous
and suffruticose veronicas (Division Euveronica J. B. Armstg.) are dis-
tinguished by their didymous capsule. But the shrubby V. loganioides
J. B. Armstg. has a similar capsule. This plant resembles in many
respects a juvenile form of the whipcord section of Division I, Hebe. There
is another epharmonically similar plant, V. cassinioides Hort., which has a
capsule of the Hebe type, and which represents a fixed juvenile form of a
whipcord Veronica, such as that fixed or semi-fixed form of V . tetragona
Hook., which occurs occasionally on the volcanic plateau (see Plate V.
fig. 2). Still more is the relation to whipcord veronicas shown in the
toothed leaves of reversion shoots. With a broadening of leaf, a not un-
common occurrence, there is a close approach to V. buxifolia Benth. In.
considering the phylogeny of the species of Veronica the change from herb
to shrub would be epharmonic, as may now be seen in the series of forms
from just sufTruticose to almost shrubs. In such manner V . loganioides
might arise, and, the form of capsule changing by mutation, there would
be V . cassinioides, which on the one hand could develop by way of V . buxi-
folia into the mesophytic species, or through pressing of leaves to the stem,
and a certain amount of reduction, into the xerophytic whipcord forms.
Of course, I do not imagine these are the actual ancestral species, but it
does not seem absurd to take them as approximative to such. Some
further details may shed a little light on the matter.
The shrubby veronicas fall into three epharmonic classes, using Cheese-
man's synopsis. The first would include from V. speciosa R. Cunn. to I*.
pimeleoides Hook, f., the second from V. Gilliesiana T. Kirk to V. uniflora
T. Kirk, and the third from V. macrantha Hook. f. to V. Raoulii Hook. f.
The first class shows a leaf gradually decreasing in size, and varying from
the willow form, broader or narrower as the case may be, to the small more
or less oblong or ovate leaf of so many of the subalpine species — that is.
there is a reduction of leaf-surface in accordance with increase of xerophytic
conditions. Where lowland species occupy xerophytic stations large leaves
are thickened in texture, as in V. Dicffenbachii Benth., V. speciosa R. Cunn.,
and V. macroura Hook, f., all plants of coastal rocks ; or reduced and
thickened, as in V . chathamica Buch., another coastal-rock plant ; or much
46 Transactions.
reduced in size, as in V . diosmaefolia R. Cunn., a heath-plant — indeed, there
are few species whose leaf-form cannot be referred to evident epharmony.
The general habit of the species is often strikingly epharmonic. In
point of fact, all branch on the same plan, but density or looseness of
branching in its extremes makes very different plants, as in the far-spread-
ing, open, and stragglingly branched V. Cookianum Col. and V. Dieffen-
bachii Benth., and the close ball - like V. buxifolia var. odora T. Kirk,
V. Traversii Hook, f., and many of the subalpine semi-xerophytic species.
Still more xerophytic species have the prostrate form, as V. chalhamica,
a plant of wind-swept and spray-swept coastal rocks, and V. ■pinguifolia
Hook, f., in some of its numerous forms, as it hugs dry alpine rocks or the
stony surface of fell-field. It is instructive, too, to see how one and the
same Linnean species varies in the growth-forms of its components. Thus
V . buxifolia Benth. may be either a ball-like shrub, a low erect open little-
branched shrub, or sparsely branched and prostrate. Its leaves, too, vary
from patent to imbricating ; while as for small leaf- variations, they are with-
out end. The degree of imbricating of leaves is a striking epharmonic
feature in these small-leaved veronicas, and Cheeseman uses it, but in a
guarded manner, as an aid to identification. But the truth is, the indivi-
duals of a well-defined form vary much in this regard according to their
surroundings, while there appears also to be non-epharmonic variation of
this character.
A more xerophytic station in general than that of the subalpine species
of class 1 is demanded by those of class 2. Here reduction of leaf and
imbricating reach their maximum in the whipcord forms. These have fully
developed though small leaves as seedlings and on reversion shoots, and
are thus united to Veronica Gilliesiana, T. Kirk, Hook, f., and others whose
leaves are not so much reduced. Classes 1 and 2, as here defined, seem to
be connected by V. buxifolia Benth., as a study of its seedling form shows.*
But this latter is also related to V. cassinioides Hort., which, as already
shown, is a juvenile or ancestral whipcord Veronica which may be linked
with suffruticose and herbaceous species by V. loganioides J. B. Armstg.
The relation, then, if my supposition be accepted, between such a species
as V. buxifolia or some form such as V. cassinioides is so close that favour-
able epharmonic conditions should convert the one into the other in course
of time. The cupressoid growth-form of these whipcord veronicas may
easily have appeared epharmonically several times. Each time there
would be some slight difference in the form evoked, and thus some of the
species of whipcord Veronica may have originated independently and not
from one ancestralf cupressoid form, and there may have been actual
♦Details are given by me (1901, pp. 282-86) under the name V. odora Hook, f.,
which, however, is now known through the researches of Cheeseman (1909) to be distinct
from the plant in question, which is V. buxifolia Benth. var. odora T. Kirk. PI. 11
in the above paper should be consulted, as it shows the relation in form between the
juvenile leaves of V. buxifolia var. odora and V. Armslrongii T. Kirk, a whipcord Veronica.
•f Regarding polygenetic origins, Chilton wrote (1884, p. 156), " Suppose the
marine ancestor of the terrestial Isopoda to be widely spread, and to inhabit the shores
of, say, New Zealand and England, and that in each case certain animals began gradually
to leave the sea and make their home on the land, at first keeping within the range of
the spray, as Ligia still does, but afterwards leaving the sea altogether, would not the
new conditions in which these animals would be placed, being practically the same in
both countries, produce in each case the same effect, so that the variations which would
be preserved would bo the same in the two cases, and hence the animals, although arising
independently from the same marine ancestor, might so far resemble one another as to
be placed in the same genus or even in the same species ? " Guppy (1907) should also
be consulted.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 47
polygenetic development of species. This polygenetic origin of form, if not
of species, is the more likely, as the form exists in other families, while the
distribution of the species shows that, though some are widespread, there
are a number of species of restricted distribution— e.g., V. Langii Cockayne
(Stewart Island), V. Hectori Hook. f. (western Otago), V. propinqua
Cheesem. (Mount Maungatua and some other Otago mountains), V. sali-
cornioides Hook. f. (Nelson), V. Astoni (Tararua Mountains), V. tetragona
(volcanic plateau), and others not yet described.
Veronica Haastii Hook, f., V. epacridea Hook, f., and V. Petriei T. Kirk
are not definitely connected with the rest of class 2, and may be considered
a side branch, with modified leaves.
Class 3 form a distinct line of descent to itself, and its connection with
any other branch of the genus is not clear. Two species are moor-plants,
and the remainder rock-plants ; their growth-forms are epharmonic. The
branched panicle of V. Hulkeana F. Muell., V. Lavaudiana Raoul, and
V. Raoulii Hook. f. remove them from the rest of the class. Nevertheless.
branching of the inflorescence is merely a question of degree, and occur.-,
at times in various species— e.g., V. Traversii Hook, f., where it is un-
expected— while in others a similar inflorescence is a specific character
(V. diosmaefolia, V. Menziesii Benth.).
Regarding the herbaceous species, V. pulvinaris Benth. & Hook, belong-
ing to Pygmaea, their leaves are not arranged quadrifarionsly. By some
they are regarded as forming a distinct section of the genus. At present it
is impossible to assign them a place in the direct line of descent. They are
cushion plants, and epharmonically similar to Myosotis pulvinaris Hook. f.
The suffruticose veronicas (V. catarractae Forst. f., V. Lyallii Hook, f.,
and V. Bidwillii Hook, f.) are closely related to one another — so closely,
indeed, that it is hard to assign limits to any as a Linnean species, and the
simplest method from that standpoint would be to unite all three.
X. Concluding Remarks.
The object of this . paper is to supply material for consideration by
students of evolution culled from a field which, although not altogether
neglected, is much less cultivated for the supply of evolutionary pabulum,
especially by English writers, than is the wide domain of zoology, whence
come the bulk of the facts of so many works on evolution.
Whatever of value there may be in this ecological material lies in the
fact that it is drawn from an isolated and virgin vegetation, and one, too,
where the grazing animal played a most insignificant part compared with
its role in the Old World.
The details have not been selected to support any particular theory,
though, of course, as ecological observations are the basis of the paper, the
relation of plant to environment takes the leading place.
By one celebrated school of biologists the ultimate inheritance of cha-
racters* evoked by stimuli affecting the body-cells is either considered
impossible or an occurrence so rare as to be negligible, while such evidence
as I have advanced is looked upon as worthless, or, at best, as quite
* For years Henslow has battled strenuously for the cause of the inheritance of
acquired characters, but without receiving the attention his works deserve; in fact,
many writers seem acquainted only with his " Origin of Floral Structures," and neglect
altogether his much more convincing " Origin of Plant Structures," a work full of
suggestive material.
48 Transactions.
insufficient. But another and equally famous school believe such inherit-
ance to be a more or less frequent occurrence, botanists, as a rule, being
more in its favour than are zoologists.
Speaking of theories of evolution generally, there seems good reason
to consider that such, if not premature, are chiefly of value as a stimulus
to biological research. Our ignorance as to the minute structure, the
chemistry, and the physiology of the protoplasm is profound. Nothing-
is known as yet regarding the actual cause of variation. An epharmonic
stimulus could do nothing were it not that the inner constitution of the
plant is already able to respond — i.e., the " machinery " is there ready to
produce the possibly epharmonic variation so soon as it gets the necessary
touch.
The construction of elaborate theories is not the method by which
progress can be made. Actual experiments in the garden, the laboratory,
and the field can alone lead to the truth. Even in taxonomy, only experi-
ment can actually decide as to stable and hereditary forms. But observa-
tions from nature are also demanded, and here ecology comes in, with the
attempt to make use of the wild-plant world, where there are species in
the making, as a source of observation. The duty of the ecologist is the
collecting of facts in as accurate a manner as possible. The study of
epharmony in its manifold phas3S is urgently required. Its vigorous prose-
cution should yield a rich harvest of observations, to be examined in the
light of experimental evolution.
XI. Literature cited.*
Armstrong. J. B. 1881. " A Synopsis of the New Zealand Species of
Veronica Linn., with Notes on New Species." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 13,
p. 344.
Balfour, I. B. 1879. " The Collections from Rodriquez— Botany." Phil.
Trans. R.S., vol. 168, p. 302.
Bitter, G. 1911. " Die Gattung Acaena." Stuttgart.
Blaringhem, L. 1907. " Mutation et Traumatisme." Paris.
Buchanan, J. 1870. Introductory Remarks to " List of Plants found
in the Northern District of the Province of Auckland." Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 2, p. 239.
— 1871. " On some New Species and Varieties of New Zealand
Plants." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, p. 208.
Burns, G. P. 1911. " Edaphic Conditions in Peat Bogs of Southern
Michigan." Bot. Gaz., vol. 52, p. 105.
Cheeseman, T. F. 1891. "Further Notes on the Three Kings Islands."
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 408.
1906. " Manual of the New Zealand Flora." Wellington.
1907. " Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of
New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 439.
1908. Ibid., No. 2. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 270.
1909. " On the Systematic Botany of the Islands to the South of
New Zealand." The Subant, Islands of N.Z., vol. 2, p. 389.
Chilton, C. 1884. " The Distribution of Terrestial Crustacea." N.Z.
Journ. Sci., vol. 2, p. 154.
Clements, F. E. 1905. " Research Methods in Ecology." Nebraska.
* Works consulted but not referred to in the text are not included, except in a few-
instances.
Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E volution . 49
Cockayne, L. 1901. " An Inquiry into the Seedling Forms of New Zea-
land Phanerogams and their Development, Part IV." Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 33, p. 265.
1902. " A Short Account of the Plant Covering of Chatham
Island." Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 34, p. 243.
1904. " A Botanical Excursion during Midwinter to the Southern
Islands of New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, p. 225.
1907. ' Note on the Behaviour in Cultivation of a Chatham Island
Form of Coprosma propinqua" Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 378.
1907a. " On the Sudden Appearance of a New Character in an
Individual of Leptospermum scoparium." New Phytol., vol. 6, p. 43.
1908. ' Report on a Botanical Survey of the Waipoua Kauri
Forest." Wellington.
1909. " Report on a Botanical Survey of Stewart Island." Wel-
lington.
- 1909a. The Ecological Botany of the Subantarctic Islands of
New Zealand." The Subant. Islands' of N.Z., vol. 1, p. 182.
— ■ — 1910. " On a Non-flowering New Zealand Species of Rubus."
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 325.
— 1911. " On the Peopling by Plants of the Subalpine River-bed
of the Rakaia (Southern Alps of New Zealand)." Trans. Bot. Soc.
Edinb., vol. 24, p. 104.
Cook, 0. F. 1907. " Aspects of Kinetic Evolution." Proc. Wash. Acad.
Sci., vol. 8, p. 197.
Costantin, J. 1898. " Les Vegetaux et les Milieux Cosmiques." Paris.
Cross, B. D. 1910. " Observations on some New Zealand Halophytes."
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 545.
Darwin, C. 1899. " The Origin of Species." London. (6th ed.)
1905. " The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestica-
tion." (Popular edition, edited by Francis Darwin.)
Darwin, F. 1908. Presidential Address. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
Dendy, A. 1902. " The Chatham Islands : a Study in Biology." Mem.
and Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc, vol. 46, pt. 5.
1903. "The Nature of Heredity." Rep. S.Af. A.A.S., vol. 1.
Diels, L. 1906. " Jugendformen und Blutenreife im Pflanzenreich."
Berlin.
Goebel, K. 1889-93. " Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen." Marburg.
1900-5. " Organography of Plants." Oxford.
- 1908. " Einleitung in die Experimentelle der Prlanzen." Leipzig
and Berlin.
Griffen, E. M. 1908. " The Development of some New Zealand Conifer
Leaves with Regard to Transfusion Tissue and to Adaptation to En-
vironment." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 43.
Guppy, H. B. 1907. " Plant-distribution from an Old Standpoint."
Author's copy of paper read before the Vict. Inst.
Hall, H. M. 1910. " Studies in Ornamental Trees and Shrubs." Univ.
of Cal. Pub. in Bot., vol. 4, p. 1.
Haswell, W. A. 1891. " Recent Biological Theories.' Rep. A.A.A.S.,
vol. 3, p. 173.
Henslow, G. 1895. " The Origin of Plant Structures." London.
— 1908. ' The Heredity of Acquired Characters in Plants."
London.
50 Transactions.
Hooker. J. U. 1853. ' Flora Novae-Zelandiae." Vol. 1. Introductory
Essay, p. i.
Kirk, T. 1871. "On the Botany of the Northern Part of the Province
of Auckland." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, p. 166.
1889. " The Forest Flora of New Zealand." Wellington.
1896. ' The Displacement of Species in New Zealand." Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 1.
Klebs, G. 1903. ' Willkiirliche Entwickelungsiinderungen bei Pflanzen."
Jena.
- 1910. ' Influence of Environment on the Forms of Plants."
Darwin and Modern Science, p. 223.
Leavitt, G. G. 1907. " The Geographic Distribution of Closely Related
Species." Am. Nat., vol. 41, p. 207.
MacDougal, D. T. 1911. "Inheritance of Habitat Effects in Plants."'
Plant World, vol. 14, p. 53.
Massart, J. 1910. " Esquisse de la Geographie botanique de la Belgique."
Bruxelles.
Oliver, R. B. 1910. " The Vegetation of the Kermadec Islands."
Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42, p. 118.
Romanes, G. J. 1893-97. ' Darwin and After Darwin." London.
Scott-Elliott, G. F. 1910. " The Waning of Weismannism." Jourm
R. Hort. Soc, vol. 35, p. 327.
Speight, R. 1911. " The Post-glacial Climate of Canterbury." Trans.
N.Z. Inst,, vol. 43, p. 408.
Thomson, G. M. 1901. " Plant-acclimatization in New Zealand." Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 313. (Contains various supplementary notes by
D. Petrie.)
Travers, H. H. 1869. " On the Chatham Islands." Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 1, p. 173.
Travers, W. T. L. 1870. " On the Changes effected in the Natural Features
of a New Country by the Introduction of Civilized Races." Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 2, p. 299.
Vries, H. de. 1901-3. " Die Mutationstheorie." Leipzig.
1905. " Species and Varieties, their Origin bv Mutation." Chicago.
Wallace, A. R. 1889. " Darwinism." London.
Warming, E. 1909. " Oecology of Plants." Oxford.
Weismann, A. 1910. ' The Selection Theory." Darwin and Modern
Science, p. 18.
Williams, W. L. 1904. ' Abnormal Growth of a Plant of Phormium
Colensoir Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 36, p. 333, and pi. 25.
Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant -habitats. 51
Art. II. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats (VII).
By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S.
[Read before the. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th October, 1911.]
This paper is divided into three sections, the first containing the usual
general plant-habitats, the second devoted to the neighbourhood of the
Franz Josef Glacier, and the third to the plants of the Omeroa Saddle.
My list of plants in Dr. J. M. Bell's report on the Franz Josef Glacier
is, as is therein indicated, most incomplete. With the addition of the
species here published and those recorded only for the Omeroa Saddle the
total is increased from 287 to 356, while a fair idea may be gained of the
vascular flora of that part of Westland from the sea-shore to an altitude
of 1,200 m. Doubtless there are still many mountain species not re-
corded, since, so far as the higher land was concerned, I was only able
to visit the fell-field, &c, on the right-hand side of No-go Creek, where
the slopes are very steep and much broken, and the vegetation merely in
patches.
The Omeroa Saddle is situated on a spur which is crossed by the bridle-
track leading from the Franz Josef to the Fox Glacier. Its altitude is
about 330 m. There is a small amount of open boggy ground, but the
bulk of the vegetation is forest. The occurrence of certain subalpine
shrubs is remarkable for so low an altitude, but it must be borne in mind
that every Westland lowland river-bed contains a percentage of plants
which are generally to be found only at a higher altitude.
To Messrs. W. Willcox, D. L. Poppelwell, W. Wilson, and C. Foweraker
I am much indebted for various specimens mentioned below. Mr. Poppel-
well further has sent me full lists of his collections on the Garvie, Eyre,
and other mountains, but these are so extensive and important that it is
better that he himself should publish them.
I. Species from various Localities.
Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f.
South Island : (1.) Nelson — Forest near Reefton ; L. C. (2.) Canter-
bury— Forest, Makarora Valley ; L. C.
Anisotome Haastii (F. Muell.) Cockayne and Laing.
South Island : Canterbury — Herb-field of Mount Ernest, head of
Lake Wanaka. The Misses Ewing !
Anisotome intermedia Hook. f.
South Island : (1) Otago — Curio Bay, near Waikawa, on cliff ; L. C.
(2.) Westland— Big Bay ; L. C.
Australina pusilla Gaud.
South Island : Canterbury — Remains of forest near Waimate. C.
Foweraker !
52 Transactions .
Blechnum Banksii (Hook, f.) Mett.
South Island : Westland — Jackson's Bay ; Paringa Bay. L. C.
There are no Westland records in Cheeseman's Manual either for this
or B. durum.
Blechnum durum (Moore) C. Chr.
South Island : Westland — Jackson's Bay ; Paringa Bay. L. C.
Carex Buchanani Berggren.
South Island : Canterbury — Canterbury Plain, by side of water-races,
almost to sea-level. L. C.
This is an example of an indigenous plant becoming more widely spread
through the farming operations of the settler.
Celmisia bellidioides Hook. f.
South Island : Otago — -Cecil Peak, Lake Wakatipu. W. Willcox !
Only three habitats are given by Petrie in his " List of the Flowering-
plants of Otago " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28. p. 559).
Celmisia densiflora Hook. f.
South Island : Canterbury — Mount Stndholme, Hunter's Hills. C.
Foweraker !
Celmisia mollis Cockayne.
South Island : Nelson — Mountains near Hanmer. W. Willcox !
Celmisia pseudo-Lyallii (Cheesem.) Cockayne.
South Island : Canterbury — Mount Studholme, Hunter's Hills. C.
Foweraker !
This is, so far, the most southern record for this species. Mount Stud-
holme is only 1,085 m. high, but it contains, besides the two species
already noted, C. coriacea Hook, f., C. Lyallii Hook, f., and C. sfeCbdbilis
Hook. f.
Celmisia ramulosa Hook. f.
South Island : Otago — Cecil Peak, near summit. W. Willcox !
Celmisia Walkeri T. Kirk.
South Island : Canterbury — Mount Ernest, head of Lake Wanaka.
The Misses Ewing !
Corallospartium crassicaule (Hook, f.) J. B. Armstg.
South Island: Otago — Mount Rov. Lake Wanaka; 1,200m. altitude.
L. C.
Coriaria angustissima Hook. f.
South Island : Westland — (1) Subalpine belt of mountains bounding
Taramakau and Otira Valleys; (2) river-bed of Otira, at 300m. alti-
tude, in company with the two other species, but much less abundant.
L. C.
Dacrydium laxifolium Hook. f.
South Island : Otago — Near Curio Bay, Waikawa. within a metre or
two of sea-level, in Sphagnum bosr. L. C.
Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats. 53
Dracophyllum virgatum (Cheesem.) Cockayne sp. nov. = I), uniflorum
Hook. f. var. virgatum Cheesem. in " Manual of the New Zealand
Flora,'' p. 427 (1906).
South Island : Westland — Swamp near Lake Brunner. L. C.
Fuchsia Colensoi Hook. f.
South Island : Westland — Near Lake Ianthe. L. C.
F. Colensoi appears to be quite an uncommon species in Westland .
For other stations, see II below.
Gahnia rigida T. Kirk.
South Island : Westland — What I take to be this species is common
as far south as the Waiho River. L. C.
Gunnera dentata T. Kirk.
South Island : Canterbury- — River-bed of River Makarora. head of
Lake Wanaka. L. C.
Korthalsella Lindsayi (Oliver) Engler.
South Island : Otago — Crescent Island, Lake Wanaka ; parasitic on
Pseudopanax ferox. L. C.
Leptolepia novae-zelandiae (Col.) Kuhn.
Stewart Island— In rimu-kamahi forest. R. B. Oliver !
Librocedrus Bidwillii Hook. f.
South Island : Westland — One of the members of the low river-bed
forest in the Otira Valley. L. C.
The most important trees of this association are Phyllocladus alpinas
Hook, f., Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk, and Pseudopanax crassifolium Seem.
Lycopodium fastigiatum R. Br.
South Island : Westland — Otira Valley, on old river-bed. L. C.
Mazus radicans (Hook, f.) Cheesem.
South Island : Westland — A characteristic plant of lowland and
montane river-beds. L. C.
Myosotis Goyeni Petrie.
South Island : Otago — Mount Roy, Lake Wanaka, on dry rock-face,
at altitude of 450 m. L. C.
Nothofagus Menziesii (Hook. 1.) Oerst.
South Island : Canterbury — Valley of the Makarora, forming a pure
forest. L. C.
Olearia Haastii Hook. f.
South Island : (1.) Westland— Otira Gorge, in subalpine scrub ; only
one plant noted. (2.) Canterbury — Bank of Sloven's Creek. Waimakariri
basin. L. C.
0. Haastii, although evidently widely spread, is a rare species, having
been recorded from seven localities only, including the above.
•54 Transaction*.
Pennantia corymbosa Forst.
South Island : Canterbury — Makarora Valley. L. C.
Pittosporum divaricatum Cockayne sp. nov. ined.
South Island : Westland — Otira Valley, in low forest. L. C.
This attains considerable dimensions. One example was 2*5 m. tall,
and had a trunk 12*5 cm. in diameter. I am not sure but that the West-
land form is distinct from that of the steppe climate of Canterbury. The
seedling leaves are more deeply cut (see Plate VIII, Article I, in this volume).
Poa imbecilla Forst. f.
Stewart Island— R. B. Oliver !
Podocarpus spicatus R. Br.
South Island : Canterbury — Makarora Valley ; formerly common in
lowland forest. L. C.
Pseudopanax ferox T. Kirk.
South Island : Otago — Crescent Island, Lake Wanaka, on rocky slope.
L. C.
Both old and young trees are plentiful.
Rubus cissoides A. Cunn. var. pauperatus T. Kirk.
South Island : Otago — Crescent Island, Lake Wanaka. L. C.
Schoenus pauciflorus Hook. f.
South Island : Canterbury — Kaiapoi Island ; Canterbury Plain, almost
at sea-level. L. C.
Trichomanes Colensoi Hook. f.
South Island : (1.) Westland — Mount Rangi Taipo, on rock, at about
600 m. altitude ; L. C. (2.) Otago — In forest, Anita Bay ; L. C.
The number of records for this fern are few, but it is easily overlooked.,
Uncinia uncinata (L. f.) Kiikenth.
Stewart Island. R. B. Oliver !
Veronica Buchanani Hook. f.
South Island : Otago — Lindis Peak ; on summit. L. C.
Veronica dasyphylla T. Kirk.
South Island : Otago— (1.) Cecil Peak ; W. Willcox ! (2.) Summit of
Mount Roy, Lake Wanaka ; L. C.
Veronica epacridea Hook. f.
South Island : Otago— Mount Roy, Lake Wanaka ; on summit, 1,560 m.
altitude. L. C.
Veronica odora Hook. f.
Stewart Island- — Exact habitat forgotten, but perhaps Lord's River.
D. L. Poppelwell !
Veronica subalpina Cockayne.
South Island : Canterbury — Mount Ernest. The Misses Ewing!
Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats. ■■ 55
II. Additional Species for the Neighbourhood of the Franz Josef
Glacier from the Sea to about 1.200 m. Altitude.
Anisotome pilifera (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing.
Subalpine fell-field.
Arundo conspicua Forst. f.
Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
Forest ; subalpine fell-field.
Astelia Petriei Cockayne.
Subalpine fell-field, forming extensive patches.
Calamagrostis pilosa (A. Rich.).
Roche moutonnee ; moraine; fell-field.
Carex Cockayniana Kukenth.
Forest.
Carex comans Berggren.
River-bed ; very common.
Carex dissita Sol.
Near pools of water, at about 210m. altitude.
Carmichaelia (two species).
River-bed. These species are probably " new." One is prostrate, and
the other semi-prostrate. I have only fruiting specimens.
Celmisia petiolata Hook. f.
Subalpine fell-field.
Celmisia Sinclairii Hook. f.
Subalpine fell-field, forming large patches.
Celmisia Walked T. Kirk.
On rock where there is covering of soil, forming extensive patches.
Cladium teretifolium R. Br.
Lowland moor.
Claytonia australasica Hook. f.
Small wet stony debris in subalpine belt.
Coprosma brunnea (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
River-bed near terminal face of glacier.
Coprosma' ciliata Hook. f.
Subalpine scrub.
Coprosma serrulata Hook. f.
Roche moutonnee, at 650 m. ; old moraine, at 900 m.
56 Transactions.
Coriaria angustissima Hook. f.
Fell-field, at 1,200 m.
Cotula dioica Hook. f.
Salt meadow, Okarito.
Cotula squalida Hook. f.
Old moraine; river-bed and fell-field up to 1,200m
Dacrydium Colensoi Hook.
Lowland forest.
Dacrydium intermedium T. Kirk.
Lowland forest.
Dracophyllum Kirkii Berggren.
Roche moutonnee.
Dracophyllum Urvilleanum A. Rich. var. montanum Cheese*n.
Roche moutonnee.
Epilobium chloraefolium Hausskn.
Fell-field.
Epilobium microphyllum A. Rich.
River-bed.
Epilobium sp.
This is the western plant included by Cheeseman with^A'. gracilipca
T. Bark (see Manual, p. 181). I hope to publish a description of this species
shortly, and point out its distinguishing characters.
Fell-field, 1,200 m.
Euphorbia glauca Forst. f.
Shore, Okarito.
Euphrasia Monroi Hook. f.
Fell-field, 1,200 m.
Fuchsia Colensoi Hook. f.
Near Lake Mapourika.
Gahnia rigida T. Kirk.
Forest ; lowland moor.
Gaultheria perplexa T. Kirk.
Old river-bed.
Gentiana sp. (perhaps G. bellidioides Hook, f., but not in flower).
Fell-field, at 1,200 m.
Geum parviflorum Sm.
Old moraine; fell-field, at 1,200m.
Cockayne.— Some Hitherto- unrecorded Plant -ha bit (its.
57
Hypolepis millefolium Hook.
Fell-field, at 1,200 m.
Juncus maritimus Lam. var. australiensis Buchen.
Salt meadow, Okarito.
Loranthus micranthus Hook. f.
Parasitic on various trees and shrubs.
Mazus radicans (Hook, f.) Cheesem.
On river-beds ; abundant.
Metrosideros scandens Sol.
Sea-cliff, Okarito.
Muehlenbeckia axillaris Walp.
River-bed.
Myosotis Forsteri Lehm.
Roche moutonnee.
Myosotis macrantha Hook. f. & Benth.
Fell-field, at 1,200 m. ; rare.
Nothopanax anomalum Hook. f.
Forest.
Nothopanax parvum (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
Forest.
Olearia moschata Hook. f.
Subalpine scrub ; abundant.
Ourisia caespitosa Hook. f.
Fell-field, up to 1,200 m. ; common.
Ourisia macrocarpa Hook. f.
Fell-field, at 1,200m. and lower; common.
Oxalis magellanica Forst.
Fell-field, at 1,200 m.
Pennantia corymbosa Forst.
River-terrace forest.
Poa Astoni Petrie.
Coastal cliff, Okarito.
Poa pusilla Berggren.
River-bed.
Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk.
Forest,
■58 Transactions
Ranunculus Godleyanus Hook. f.
Bed of No-go Creek, at about 1,000 m. altitude.
Ranunculus Lyallii Hook. f.
Fell-field ; abundant from about 900 m. upwards.
Ranunculus lappaceus Sm. var.
Raoulia australis Hook. f.
River-bed.
Raoulia glabra Hook. f.
River-bed.
Rubus parvus Buchanan.
(1) Open ground near Lake Mapourika ; (2) bed of River Onieroa.
Both in open and amongst shrubs.
Rubus subpauperatus Cockayne.
Scrub of river-terrace.
Schizeilema Haastii (Hook. f.).
Fell-field, at 1,200 m.
Schizeilema nitens (Petrie).
Wombat Pond, on old moraine.
Senecio Lyallii Hook. f.
Fell-field, at 1,200 m.
Trisetum Youngii Hook. f.
Fell-field, at 1,200 m.
III. List of Species of Omeroa Saddle.
Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f.
Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
Blechnum capense (L.) Schlecht.
fluviatile (R. Br.) Lowe.
penna marina (Poir) Kuhn.
Carex Gaudichaudiana Kunth.
ternaria Forst. f.
Coprosma cuneata Hook. f.
foetidissima Forst.
parviflora Hook. f.
rugosa Cheesem.
species with yellow drupe.
Cordyline indivisa (Forst. f.) Steud.
Dacrydium biforme (Hook.) Pilger.
Colensoi Hook.
Danthonia Cunninghamii Hook. f.
semiannularis R. Br.
Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant -habitat*. 59*
Dicksonia lanata Col.
Dracophyllum longifolium (Forst. f.) R. Br.
Traversii Hook. f.
Drimys colorata Raoul.
Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul.
Fuchsia excorticata Linn. f.
Gaultheria antipoda Forst. f.
depressa Hook. f.
rupestris R. Br.
Gleichenia Cunninghamii Heward.
Griselinia littoralis Raoul.
Hymenophyllum Malingii (Hook.) Mett.
. multifidum (Forst. f.) Sw.
Hypolepis millefolium Hook.
Leptopteris superba (Col.) Pr.
Libocedrus Bidwillii Hook. f.
Luzuriaga marginata (Banks & Sol.) Benth. & Hook. ':
Myrtus pedunculata Hook. f.
Nothopanax anomalum Hook. f.
Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem.
parvum (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
— simplex (Forst. f.) Seem.
Olearia Colensoi Hook. f.
ilicifolia Hook. f.
— — — lacunosa Hook. f.
nitida Hook. f.
Phormium Cookianum Le Jolis.
Phyllocladus alpinus Hook. f.
Pittosporum divaricatum Cockayne.
Podocarpus acutifolius T. Kirk.
Polystichum vestitum (Forst. f.) Pr.
Pratia angulata (Forst. f.) Hook. f.
Rubus australis Forst. f.
Senecio eleagnifolius Hook. f.
Styphelia acerosa Sol.
Suttonia divaricata Hook. f.
Uncinia riparia R. Br. ?
Veronica salicifolia Forst. f.
Viola filicaulis Hook. f.
* I understand from Dr. C. Skottsberg that the New Zealand plant is distinct from
that of temperate South America. That being so, the New Zealand species must receive
a new name.
60 Transact ions .
Art. III. — Some Notes on the Botany of the Spenser Mountains, with a
List of the Species collected.
By R. M. Laing, B.Sc.
\Rd'id before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st November, 1911.]
Route.
In December-January, 1910-11, we arranged a small party* to take pack-
horses and ascend the headwaters of the Waiau and the Clarence Rivers.
We left Hanmer, and *went by way of Jack's Pass and Fowler's Pass to
the out-station on the Ada. We camped near the foot of the saddle, and
explored the surrounding country botanically. Our next camp was in
Glacier Gully, a small tributary of the Waiau, some five miles farther to
the east. Tnence we crossed Maling's Pass to Lake Tennyson, in the
neighbourhood of which several days were spent. Bad weather, unfor-
tunately, prevented the ascent of any of the higher peaks. The highest
point attained was probably under 6,000 ft., on Mount Princess. Some
of the upper alpine plants may, therefore, have escaped observation. The
return to Hanmer was made via the Clarence Valley.
Historical.
The Spenser Mountains form a little-known district of the Southern
Alps, lying at the headwaters of the Waiau, Clarence, and the Wairau.
The district was first explored by Mr. W. T. L. Travers during the end of
February and the beginning of March, 1860. An account of this explora-
tion will be found in the Nelson Examiner of the 14th March, 1860. During
the trip he named " the Spenser Mountains in honour of the poet of that
name." The name is now often misspelt " Spencer." Maling's Pass is
so designated in honour of Mr. C. Maling, who accompanied Travers, and
who had seen the pass on a previous trip with Mr. Domett. Maling's
Pass leads from the watershed of the Clarence into that of the Waiau.
Tributaries of the Waiau were named by Mr. Travers after his children
— -the Ada, the Henry, and the Anne. Gelmisia Traversii was originally
discovered on the summit of the mountain between the Ada and the Anne.
Other novelties discovered by Travers in the district were Ranunculus
crithmijolius, R. Lyattii var. Traversii, R. Sinclairii, Pittosporum patulum,
Gnaphalium nitidulum, and Wahlenbergia cartilaginea. Of these, Gnaphalium
nitidulum has not again been found, unless, as appears likely (see subjoined
list), it is amongst the specimens collected by us.
Since the time of Travers the district has apparently several times
been visited by collectors and botanists. However, there is no published
account of its botany, and the only list of species drawn up for it is a short
one appearing at the end of an article on the ascent of Mount Franklin by
Park (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, p. 350). This contains seventy-eight species,
identified by Buchanan. Of these, about a fifth were not collected by us,
* The party consisted of Mr. W. W. Rowntree, my brother (Mr. T. M. Laing),
Mr. C. E. Foweraker, and myself. My best thanks are due to Mr. Foweraker for
much valuable assistance in the field. Without it the work could scarcely have been
carried on.
Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountain* . 61
but it has not been thought advisable to include them in our list. Indeed,
it appears to us that several of those there recorded are most unlikely
inhabitants of the district — e.g., Dodonaea viscosa, Gentiana concinna, G.
saxosa, Dracophyllum Urvilleanum (typical form), Veronica odora, Ranun-
culus pinguis. Various species, also, which we had expected to get were not
found by us. Amongst these may be noted Celmisia Traversii, of which,
however, we saw specimens from Mount Percival, at the back of Hanmer.
and Ranunculus Lyallii, which we did not see at all, though we were
assured that it grows in the district. It is quite clear that neither of these
species are common in the Spenser Mountains.
There are several reports on the geology of the district. References
to it will be found in Haast's " Report of a Topographical and Geographical
Exploration of the Western Districts of the Nelson Province," 1861. He
visited the Buller and Grey Valley in 1860, and saw the Spenser Mountains
from their western sides. He speaks of " the high mountain-chain, called
by my friend Mr. Travers the Spencer [sic] Mountains, whose highest peak,
clad with eternal snow, rose grandly above the low hills in front of it. I
named this mountain. Mount Franklin, in honour of the late Sir John
Franklin."
In the " Reports of Geological Explorations during 1888-89 " (Wel-
lington, 1890) there is an article by Mr. A. McKay on the " Geology
of Marlborough and the Amuri District of Nelson," which describes the
geology of the eastern slopes of the Spenser Mountains (throughout the
report spelt " Spencer ").
Topographical.
The Spenser Mountains are some twenty-five miles in length, and are
generally regarded as lying between the saddle of the Ada (3,300 ft.) and
Mount Franklin (7,671 ft.). The peaks are of a nearly uniform height of
7,000 ft., with an upward tendency towards Mount Franklin. The height
of 10,000 ft. allotted to Mount Franklin by some of the earlier explorers
was an error, doubtless due to its extensive snowfields and alpine magnifi-
cence. The Waiau, Clarence, and Wairau all converge upon this peak, and,
indeed, their chief sources lie upon it. To the south are Mounts Guinevere,
Aeneid (7,050 ft.) , Princess (6,973 ft.), Una (7,510 ft.), and Faerie Queene
(7,332 ft.). The Tennysonian names are due to Governor Weld.* In the
valley of the Waiau lies Lake Guyon, and in that of the Clarence Lake
Tennyson. Both are glacier lakes, due to the banking-up of the waters
by morainic deposits. Indeed, the whole country gives evidence of
having at one time been heavily glaciated. The Ada Stream runs
through a wide glacial valley, and there has been a large terminal
moraine across the Waiau about a mile and a half below its junction with
the Ada. The head of the low saddle lies also in a flat open valley, about
200 yards wide, having at its highest portion a Sphagnum bog. This valley
shows no terracing. Opposite its mouth there are a number of parallel
lines extending up to about 800 ft. on the left bank of the Waiau. These
are perhaps lines of glacial pressure. Glacier Gully has doubtless at one
time carried a secondary glacier, but now it can scarcely be regarded as
true to name. It opens out at its head into a large cirque on the flanks of
* '" Account by P. A. Weld of an Expedition with a View of Discovering a Direct
Route between Nelson and Canterbury " (" Canterbury Provincial Gazette," vol. 2,
No. 13, p. ;3l). Weld's trip was made in 1853.
62 Transactions.
Mount Una, and the bed of the stream (about 3,300 ft. altitude) contains
fragments of melting neve about 10 ft. thick. Judging by appearances,
this neve, would scarcely last through the summer. The lowest portion
was detached from the rest, and was about 100 yards long and 25 yards
wide. It was bisected by the stream. A little clear ice was visible at the
foot of the neve. A pronounced hanging valley on the right of the stream
and the remnants of a lateral moraine showed that at one time a glacier
of respectable dimensions had filled the creek-bed. The valley is an open
one, about 100 yards wide.
The country becomes progressively drier as we go eastward from the
Waiau to the Wairau Valley. There are few shingle-slips to be seen on
Mount Faerie Queen, as looked at from the Ada Valley. Those on Mount
Una, as viewed from Glacier Valley, are a little more extensive, but in the
neighbourhood of Lake Tennyson they become more numerous and occupy
a larger area. The Wairau Valley, from a saddle above Lake Tennyson,
appeared as dry as the region in the neighbourhood of Mount Arrowsmith.
Doubtless the westerly rains pass over the saddle into the fertile Ada Valley
and Stanley Vale, but are unable to penetrate to the country at the head-
waters of the Wairau.
The greater denudation in the Waiau Valley prevents the accumulation
of shingle-slips there.
Vegetation.
In the absence of meteorological statistics, it is, of course, impossible
to show directly how climatic conditions are affecting the vegetation, and
indirect evidence only is available. The conditions in the district, however,
resemble those that prevail in the Mount Arrowsmith region, as the plant
formations are very similar, and a large number of species are common to
both districts. Indeed, the general description given of the plant forma-
tions in the Arrowsmith district* would apply to this with but few modifi-
cations. Rock, river-fan, river-bed, tussock steppe, bog, lake, forest, fell -
field, and shingle-slip present similar features and similar plant- associations
in both districts. Certain subassociations of the Arrowsmith district were,
however, not noticed in the Spenser Mountains. Dwarf Carmichaelias were
observed only in the Waiau River bed near Hanmer, and there only a few
plants of an unidentified species. The accompanying species of the Mount
Arrowsmith district — e.g. Veronica pimeleoides var. minor and Muehlen-
beckia ephedroides — were not observed in the more northern area, nor did
we see in the Spenser Mountains any such forest as the subalpine totara
forest of the Upper Rakaia Valley. Indeed, forest-trees of any kind, with
the exception of species of Nothofagus, Noihopanax, Gaya, and Pittosporum,
were completely absent from the Spenser Mountains. The complete absence
of any of the species forming the usual coastal forests of New Zealand is
perhaps the most remarkable feature of the district. The subalpine scrub
is also poorly represented both in quantity and number of species. River
steppe, fell-field, shingle-slip, and rock occupy nine-tenths of the district.
The Nothofas/us forest was found only in the river-valleys, and decreased
in quantity from west to east. Only a few acres are to be seen in the
Upper Clarence Valley, close to the sides of Lake Tennyson. The upper
portion of the Ada Valley, however, contains considerable quantities of
the forest, and has contained more ; but some has been destroyed by fire
* Cockayne and Laing, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 345.
Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountain*. 63
and some cut out for timber. A fuller description of this forest and of
the Sphagnum bog on the Ada Saddle are given, as they differ consider-
ably in composition from the similar associations observed in the Arrow-
smith district.
Physiognomic Changes.
The district has been in occupation by runholders almost since its
discovery, and as a result many changes have been effected in the general
composition of its vegetation. On the river-flats of the Ada and Clarence
Valleys English pasture grasses have been sown, and flourish luxuriantly,
displacing to a large extent the native plant covering. The lower portion
of the Ada Valley contains beautiful pasturage of cocksfoot and white
clover, with here and there a considerable admixture of Yorkshire fog.
Occasional patches of Acaena microphylla, A. Sangwisorbae, Asperula perpu-
silla, Oreomyrrhis andicola, Cotula dioica, C. squalida, and specimens of
Stackhousia minima. Ranunculus foliosus, &c, occur in the midst of the
pasture. In the stonier portions it is crossed by lines and thickets of
Discaria scrub, which rises to a height of 15 ft. to 20 ft., intermingled with
occasional specimens of Coprosma propinqua and Veronica cupressoides.
This pasture in the Ada Valley passes at its upper margin into Nothojagus
forest. The original tussock steppe and the forest-area has been much
altered by burning. Severe burns have evidently taken place from time
to time, and much of the southern beech* is second growth, with the stumps
of the older and heavier trees still standing above it. Sorrel is rapidly
gaining ground in many places, and is even invading the shingle -slips.
Above the bush is Danthonia steppe, which has also in some places
been subjected to severe burning. The fell-fields, too, have suffered occa-
sionally from this cause, and new shingle-slips have sometimes formed
where the old vegetation has been burnt out. It is difficult, however, to
say whether consolidation from shingle-slip to fell-fields is not taking place
at an equal or greater rate in neighbouring localities.
The Nothofagus cliffortioides Forest.
The forest of the Ada Valley may be taken as typical of this associa-
tion. I therefore transcribe my notes upon it, with a few omissions. The
river-flats have to a large extent been denuded of forest, and that on the
sides of the valley has been much burnt and run through by stock. At its
margin the ground-floor is covered to some extent with introduced herbage ;
native plants, however, occur, such as Brachycome Sinclairii, Erechtites
prenanthoides, Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae. As we go further in we find a
large number of young beeches, showing that the forest tends to replace
itself. Amongst them are often plants of Oreomyrrhis, Asperula perpusilla.
<fec, and many introduced weeds. Elytranthe tetrapetala is also abundant
amongst the foliage of the southern- beech forest. Here the largest beeches
have only a diameter of 6 in., and doubtless replace the primeval forest,
which has been destroyed by fire perhaps thirty years ago. The forest-
floor where otherwise bare is covered with beech-leaves, spread over a rich
brown humus, fairly free from stones. There is also abundant upon it
Veronica vernicosa var. canterburiensis (Armstrong). In more open spaces
Epilobium pubens and Helichrysum bellidioides appear. As we go deeper
* I am using, at Dr. Cockayne's suggestion, the term " southern beech " (Nothofagus)
to distinguish our forests from the beech (Fngus) forests of the Northern Hemisphere.
64 Transactions.
into the forest the introduced grasses disappear, the forest-floor becomes
damper, and moss appears on it. The bush is still fairly open ; distances
of 10 ft., to 12 ft. often occur between neighbouring trees. Here are patches
covered with a carpet of moss, with young beeches growing through.
Blechnum penna marina, Coprosma ramulosa, and occasional plants of
C. virescens? now appear, with here and there a young plant of Notho-
panax arboreum. Through all this portion of the forest cattle have been
running.
In passing into the portions of the forest which stock have not
destroyed, the undergrowth becomes denser, but still consists of beeches
in all stages of development. Corysanthes triloba, Adenochilus gracilis,
and Chiloglottis cornuta are now to be found. As we ascend from the
river-flat, which is well covered with soil, the forest now becomes
stonier ; the trees become larger, but many of the larger ones
(1 ft. to 2 ft. in diameter) have fallen from some undetermined cause.
About a quarter of a mile from the margin a band of Nothofagus
Menziesii is found, while occasional plants of Senecio bellidioides appear
on the mossv floor. Veronica vernicosa becomes more abundant, and a few
specimens of Coprosma linariifolia appear. Here the edge of a bush-
creek is fringed with Muehlenbeckia axillaris, growing into long overhanging
sprays, giving the plant a very different appearance from its river-bed
form. Nothofagus fusca. in clumps, is found higher up the river-flat ; but
neither it nor N. Menziesii altogether replace the N. cliff ortioides, which
probably forms the greater bulk of the forest on to its upper margin. This,
at least, was the case in Glacier Valley, where it passes up into Gaya
Lyallii ; but the upper limit of the forest was not examined in the Ada
Valley. This may be placed at 800 ft, to 1,000 ft, above the bed of the
valley, and the sides are so steep that they are often swept by avalanches
of stones, which carry away the beech-trees. Their place is taken by
plants of the shingle-fan, and the beeches grow into this vegetation from
the sides, and probably in course of time will reoccupy the whole area.
Sphagnum Bog at the Head of the Ada Saddle.
The upper portion of the Ada Saddle is a flat open valley about 300
yards wide, with English pasturage (cocksfoot, Yorkshire fog, clover, sorrel,
musk, &c.) and southern beech (Nothofagus cliff ortioides) forest of a similar
type to that described in the Ada Valley some 500 ft. below. Aristotelia
fruticosa, Azorella trifoliolata, and Acaena Sanguisorbae occur on the forest-
floor, along with many of the plants already mentioned.
The head of the saddle is occupied by a Sphagnum bog about 200
yards square, which divides the eastern and western watersheds. A small
pond appears in the centre of the bog. The edges are fringed with
Dracophyllum uniflorum, Podocarpus nivalis, Phyllocladus alpinus, and
Dacrydium Bidwillii. The bog is evidently rising, as in many places the
Dracophyllum is being buried. The Sphagnum is dotted with cushions of
Oreobolus pectinatus and 0. strictus. and clumps of Celmisia longifolia var.
alpina. Round the edges are Ourisia macrophylla, Celmisia, coriacea and
C. spectabilis, Heliehrysum, bellidioides, Microseris Forsteri, Senecio lagopus,
Schizeilema nitens, and Pratia angulata. Other species growing in some
quantity on the bog are Caladenia bifolia, Rostkovia gracilis, Elaeocharis
Cunninghamii, Schoenus pauciflorus, Car ex stellulata, C. Gaudichaudiana,
Cardamine heterophylla. Forstera Bidwillii, and Drosera arcturi.
Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountains. 65
I append some notes on forms of special interest, and a list of specie*
gathered.*
Floristio Notes.
1. Gunnera densiflora (?) Hook. f.
There occurs in the forest of southern beech on the western side of
Lake Tennyson and on the margin of the lake a species of Gunnera, which
is probably the imperfectly described G. densiflora Hook f.f The plant
grows in considerable abundance on a sloping bank at the water's edge.
It agrees fairly well in character with the description of G. densiflora.
The following is a fuller description : —
Gunnera sp., with short succulent rhizome, herbaceous, creeping, root-
ing at the nodes, with rather stout villous stolons, 7 cm. to 10 cm. long.
Leaves clustered at the nodes. Petioles stout, with rather short silky
hairs, somewhat flattened, 4 cm. to 6 cm. long. Petioles stout, with rather
short silky hairs, somewhat flattened, 4 cm. to 6 cm. long, straight or
recurved. Blades cordate, reniform to orbicular, 2 cm. to 3 cm. wide,
glabrous or with a few white or brown hairs on the margin and midrib,
sharply dentate to dentate-sinuate, auricles bent upwards towards the
upper surface of the leaf, though not appressed to it, veins distinct,
palmate. Flowers monoecious, in simple spikes, which are usually uni-
sexual, but occasionally a few female flowers are found at the base of
the male spike. Male spike 4 cm. to 7 cm. long, ascending from the axil
of the leaf, the peduncle usually shorter than the fertile portion, and
covered with a soft woolly pubescence. Flowers shortly pedicellate, pro-
vided with a minute linear acute bract, 2 mm. to 3 mm. long, arising
from the base of the pedicel, and 2 minute linear sepals smaller than
the bract. Petals 2, linear-spathulate, larger than the bracts, hooded with
blackish scarious tips, 3 mm. to 5 mm. long. Stamens 2 or 3, filaments
shorter than the anthers, anthers ellipsoid, 2-celled. Female flowers sessile,
densely crowded with bract, as in the male, calyx-lobes 2, deltoid, apiculate,
petals wanting, fruiting-spike elongating to 3 cm. to 5 cm., and covered with
a villous brownish pubescence. Fertile drupes 2 mm. to 3 mm. long, rather
sparse, pyriform, sessile or shortly pedicellate, crowned by the persistent
calyx-lobes.
Mr. Cheeseman has drawn my attention to the fact that the plant is
perhaps identical with Tasmanian G. cordifolia Hook f. (Benth., Fl. Austral.,
2491 ; Milligania cordifolia Hook. f. in Ic. Plant., t. 299). This is more
fully described by Schindler in his monograph on Gunnera in the Pflan-
zenreich. The description in the " Icones Plantarum" is very imperfect, and
differs from that given by Schindler in several important poinl s. Schindler,
also, has not seen the mature drupes, and his account of them in this key
to the species is not consistent with that given in the specific description.
Doubtless the identity or otherwise of the two species cannot be determined
until a definite description of the fruit of the Tasmanian plant is obtained.
If the description of the Tasmanian species in the Pflanzenreich is to be
relied on, the , drupe is ovoid and costate. The drupe in my plants is
pyriform, rounded, and without costae. My description was drawn up
on the spot from fresh specimens, of which there was abundance.
* My thanks are due to Dr. Cockayne and Messrs. Cheeseman and Petrie for much
kind assistance, freely given, in the identification of the species.
f Handbook N.Z. Flora, p. 68.
3— Trans.
66 Transaction* .
The following minor differences appear to exist between the New
Zealand and Tasmanian forms : In G. cordifolia the petioles are shorter
than the lamina, in G. densiflora (?) they are longer. The blade in the
Tasmanian plant is more triangular and less rounded than in the New
Zealand one, much more hairy on the margin, and the stolons have much
shorter internodes. The male spikes of the one seem, however, to agree
well with those of the other, and the general resemblance is undoubted.
It will, however, be better to regard our plant as distinct until better
evidence of identity is obtained.
Mr. Cheeseman informs me that my plant is distinct from that collected
by Dr. Cockayne on the Craigieburn Mountains, and identified by the
Kew authorities as G. densiflora Hook. f. I have, unfortunately, seen no
specimens of Dr. Cockayne's plant.
I have deposited a specimen in the Canterbury Museum.
2. Anisotome Enysii (T. Kirk) Laing (comb. nov.).
Cockayne and Laing (he. cit.) have restored the genus Anisotome for
the southern species of Ligusticum ; hence the necessity for this alteration,
and the following.
3. Anisotome Enysii (T. Kirk) Laing (comb, nov.) var. tennysonianum
Laing.
Foliis pinnatis, ambitu deltoideo-ovatis, pinnis inferioribus trifoliolatis,
foliolis minus argute dentatis minus crassisque, quam in forma typica,
latioribus autem rotundioribusque.
I have hesitated whether to describe this plant as a fresh species or
only as a variety of A. Enysii. I have adopted the latter course, because
on examining specimens of A. Enysii from Central Otago and Banks
Peninsula I find that they differ considerably, and probably contain more
than one elementary species. Further, I have not seen any type specimens
of A. Enysii from Castle Hill, and consequently cannot be sure that any
of my species truly represent the original type. Until, therefore, the limits
of the species A. Ensyii are better defined it will perhaps be safer to
include this under it as a variety.
A. Ensyii from the Lyttelton Hills is a dwarf chasmophyte with minute
linear involucral bracts, united only at the base, and with well-marked
ridges on the fruit. A second form is found growing in the turf on the
Akaroa - Flea Bay ridge ; the pinnae are more distant, the whole plant is
taller and laxer than the Lyttelton one, and the involucral bracts are
usually free.
In the plants from Naseby given me by Dr. Petrie the toothing of the '
leaves is less sharp and less deep than in the other forms, and the terminal
segment is broader and rounder, whilst the involucral bracts are usually
sheathing, as described by Cheeseman. When such differences as these
exist in the forms already grouped under A. Enysii it seemed unwise to
make a fresh species of this plant, particularly as it was found in only one
locality, in the upper river steppe on the western side of Lake Tennyson.
Though differing markedly from A. Enysii in the form of the leaf, the
floral characters present only slight variations. A fuller description is
appended.
A. Enysii var. tennysonianum.
A small spreading plant 5 cm. to 15 cm. high, with stout tap-root.
Leaves subcoriaceous, glaucous, glabrous, aromatic, pinnate, with lower
LAING. — Botany >>f tin Spenser Mountains. 67
pinnae ternately divided, upper ternately lobed, the whole leaf deltoid-
ovate in outline. Petiole as long or longer than the blade, terete, strait,,
with short broad membranous sheath, 6 mm. broad at the base. Lowei
petiolules 10 mm. to 15 mm. long, upper shorter, ultimate divisions broadly
cuneate, flabellate, dentate, teeth subacute not piliferous. Flowering-
stems, several, compound, much exceeding the leaves. Peduncles with
1 or 2 bracts, the lower, if present, one-third of the distance from the base,
usually with 3 linear lobes and a broad clasping base, upper bract set
midway on the peduncle and smaller. Umbels compound, primary rays.
2-3, with a simple linear bract at the base of each ray. Secondary rays
5-7, somewhat unequal, pedicels rather longer than the fruit, 1*5 mm. to
2-5 mm. Fruit surrounded with an involucre of small linear acute bracts.
Head heterogamous, the central florets generally male, the outer her-
maphrodite. Calyx of 5 lobes, teeth deltoid, acute, minute. Petals white.
Styles subulate, equalling the ovary in length, slightly recurved, fruit ellip-
soid, carpels with 5 equal ridges.
On the upper river steppe, Mount Princess, above Lake Tennyson ;
altitude, about 3,500 ft.
A specimen is deposited in the Canterbury Museum.
4. Myosotis Laingii Cheeseman.
A hitherto-undescribed species from Lake Tennyson, now named by
Cheeseman.
5. Haastia pulvinaris var. minor Laing (var. nov.).
In omnibus partibus minor quam typus ; rami unacum foliis 6 mm.
usque ad 15 mm. lati. Pappi capilli non supra incrassati. magis autem
scabridi, pene fimbriati.
Two distinct forms of this species appear on Mount Princess (alt.,
5,000 ft. to 6,000 ft.). The smaller form is apparently distinguished by the
pappus hairs being scabrid, almost fimbriate at the tips, and not thickened
as in the typical form. The tomentum of this variety in the specimens
we got is much whiter than that in the normal variety.
A specimen is deposited in the Canterbury Museum.
6. Clemisia petiolata Hook. var. membranacea Kirk.
Two forms of this variety were observed, one with the leaf nearly
glabrous on both surfaces, and the other with margins covered with a ful-
vous pubescence. The leaves in the glabrous form are often cordate at
the base, and are broader and shorter than in the form with marginal
pubescence.
Fell-field, Glacier Gully ; about 4,000 ft,
7. Gnaphalium nitidulum Hook. f.
Specimens of a species of Gnaphalium were collected on the upper river
steppe of the Clarence Valley, at an altitude between 3,000 ft. and 4,000 ft,
It appeared to me to agree fairly well with G. nitidulum in its characters, a
plant that has not been collected since first obtained by Travers fifty years
ago.^ I sent a specimen of it to Mr. Cheeseman, who thus reports upon it :—
'' No. 1750. Gnaphalium sp. — The female florets are many times more
numerous than the hermaphrodite, and the pappus hairs are very numerous,
scabrid at the base, and the achenes are faintly downy. These characters
place the plant in the genus Gnaphalium. The leaves are about Jin. long,
3*
68 Transactions.
linear-oblong, obtuse, lower ^ thin and membranous, upper § densely
covered with white felted tomentum. The heads are sunk among the
uppermost leaves, and are about -i in. diameter. It matches the description
of G. nitidulum, except in the size of the heads, which are given as \ in.
hroad, on very short slender peduncles. But in the allied G. Traversii
the involucral scales spread after the fall of the florets, making the heads
in that state look very much larger than they do in flower, at which time
the scales are erect. Hooker's specimens of G. nitidulum were evidently
past flower, for he says ' florets not seen." I think it is very likely to prove
to be G. nitidulum ; but specimens should be sent to Kew for comparison
with the type."
I have sent specimens to Kew.* and deposited a fragment in the Canter-
bury Museum.
LIST OF SPEC IKS.
Pteridophyta.
Filices.
Hymenophyllum muUifidum (Forst. f.) Sw.
villosum Col.
('ystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh.
Adiantum diaphanum Blume.
Pteridium aquilinum L. var. esculentum Forst. f.
Blechnum capense (L.) Schlecbt.
penna marina (Poir.) Kuhn.
Asplenium flabellifolium Cav.
Hookerianum Col.
Polypodium pumilum (J. B. Armstrong) Cockayne
Ophioglossum lusitanicuni L.
Lycopodiaceae.
Lycopodium fastigiatum R. Br.
scariosum Forst.
volubile. Forst. f.
Spermaphyta.
Taxaceae.
Podocarpus nivalis Hook.
Dacrydium Bidivillii Hook. f.
Phyllocladus alptnus Hook. f.
Gramineae.
Hierochlor redolens (Forst. f.) R. Br.
Fraseri Hook. f.
Trisetwn antarcticum (Forst. f.) Trin.
Youngii Hook. f.
Danthonia Raoulii Steud.
flavescens Hook-, f.
australis Buch.
semiannularis R. Br.
J'oa, Colenmi Hook. f.
Kirkii Buch.
imbecilla Forst. f.
carspitosa Forst. f.
* The Kew authorities now (Mirch, 1912) report the specimen forwar led to be
identical with the type of G. nitidulum,.
Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountains. 69
Koeleria Kurtzii Hack.
Festuca ovina L. var. novae-zelandiae Hack-. ■ , •
Agropyron scabrum (R, Br.) Beauv.
Cyperaceae.
Elaeocharis Cunninghamii Boeck.
( 'arpha alpina R. Br.
Schoenus pauciflorus Hook. f.
Oreobolus pectinatus Hook. f.
strictus Berggr.
J'ncinia uncinata (L. f.) Kukenth.
iusco-vaginata Kvikenth.
rubra Boott.
hptostachya Raoul.
< 'or ex stellulata Good.
Gaudichaudiana Kunth.
ternaria Forst. f.
Raoulii Boott,
Petriei Cheesem.
lucida Boott.
testacea Sol. A very aberrant form, or new (D. Petrie).
Sinclairii (?) C. B. Clarke. Immature.
Rostkovia gracilis Hook. f.
Luzula campestris D.C.
J uncus novae-zelandiae Hook. f.
Naiadaceae.
Potamogeton Cheesemanii A. Benn.
Liliaceae.
Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
Phormium Coohianum Le Jolis.
* ■hrysobactron Hookeri Col.
Orchidaceae.
Thelymitra longijolia Forst. f.
Microtis unijolia (Forst, f.) Reichenb.
PrasophyUum Colensoi Hook. f.
Pteroslylis BanJcsii R. Br.
Caladenia Lyallii Hook. f.
bi folia Hook. f.
' 'hiloghttis cornuta Hook. f.
Adenochilus gracilis Hook. f.
(Jorysanthes triloba Hook. f.
(iastrodia Cunninghamii Hook. f.
Fagaceae.
Nothofagus cliff ortioides (Hook, f.) Oerst,
fusca (Hook, f.) Oerst.
Menziesii (Hook, f .) Oerst,
70 Transactions.
Urticaceae.
Urtiea incisa Poir.
Loranthaceae.
Elytrunlhe tetrapetala (Foist, f.) Engl.
' ftavida (Hook, f.) Engl.
Santalaceae.
Exocarpus Bidwillii Hook. f.
Portulacaceae.
(Haytonia australasica Hook. 1.
Montia fontanel L.
Caryophyllaceae.
Stellaria Roughii Hook. f.
Colobanthus Billardieri Fenzl. var. alpinus T. Kirk.
acicularis Hook. f.
Scleranthus biflorus Hook. f.
Ranunculaceae.
Clematis australis T. Kirk.
Ranunculus insignis Hook. f.
Monroi Hook. f.
Monroi Hook. f. var. dentatus T. Kirk.
Sinclairii (?) Hook. f. Identification not certain in the absence of
flowers and fruit,
sp. Scarcely possible to identify in the absence of flowers and fruit.
hirtus Banks & Sol.
lappaceus Smith.
foliosus T. Kirk.
rivularis Banks & Sol.
Cheescmanii T. Kirk. This is perhaps only a hygrophytic form of
R. foliosus It is everywhere abundant throughout the district, in
pools and slow-running water.
Cruciferae.
Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) Schultz var. micrantha Schultz.
heterophylla (Forst. f.) Schultz var. uniflora Hook. f.
depressa Hook. f.
fastigiata Hook. f.
Enysii Cheesem.
Notothlaspi rosulatum Hook. f.
atistrale Hook. f.
Droseraceae.
Drosera arcturi Hook.
Crassulaceae.
Crassula Sieberiana Schultz.
Pittosporaceae.
Pittosforum patulum Hook. f.
Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountain*. 71
Rosaceae.
Rubus australis Forst. f.
srhmidelioides A. Cunn. var. coloratus T. Kirk.
subpauperatus Cockayne.
parviflorum Smith.
Potentilla anserina L. var. anserinoides (Raoul) T. Kirk.
Acacna Sanguisorbae Vahl. var. pilosa T. Kirk.
inermis Hook. f.
inermis Hook. f. var. longiscapa Bitter.
microphylla Hook. f.
glabra Buck.
adscendens (?) Hook. f. non Vahl.
Leguminosae.
Carmichaelia subulata T. Kirk.
Geraniaceae,
Geranium microphyllum Hook. f.
woUe L.
Oxalidaceae.
Oxalis comiculata L.
magellanica Forst. f.
Coriariaceae.
Coriaria rusci folia L.
thymifolia Humb. & Bonp.
angustissima Hook. f.
Stackhousiaceae.
Stackhousia minima Hook. f.
Rhamnaceae.
Discaria toumatou Raoul.
Elaeocarpaceae.
Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f.
Malvaceae.
Gaya ribifolia (F. Muell.) Cockayne.
LyalUi (Hook, f.) Baker.
Violaceae.
Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f.
Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. var. angustifolia Benth.
Thymelaeaceae .
Pimeka Traversii Hook. f.
Lyallii Hook. f.
sericeo-villosa (forma) Hook. f.
Suteri (?) T. Kirk.
J>rapetes villosa Cheesem. var. muUiflora Cheesem.
Myrtaceae.
Leptospermum scoparium Forst.
ericoides A. Rich.
72 Transactions.
Onagraceae.
Epilobium pallidiflorum Sol.
BiUardierianum Ser.
junceum Sol.
pubens A. Rich.
tasmanicum. Haussk.*
pictum Pet lie.
tenuipes Hook. f.
alsinoides A. Cunn.
linnaeoides Hook. f.
nummular if olium R. Cunn.
macropus Hook.
gracilipes (?) T. Kirk.
crassum Hook. f.
vernicosum (?) Cheeseiu.
microphyllum A. Rich.
glabellum Foist.
novae-zelandiae Haussk.
pycnostachyum Haussk. This was collected by Cheeseman at Lake
Tennyson, but not collected by us.
Halorrhagaceae.
Halorrhagis depressa Walp.
Gunnera densiflora (?) Hook, f.f
dentata T. Kirk.
Araliaceae.
Nothopanax arboreum (Forst. f.) Seem.
Umbelliferae.
Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae D. C.
asiatica L.
Schizeilema Roughii (Hook. 1.) Domin.
pallidum (T. Kirk) Domin.
trifoliolatum (Hook, f.) Domin.
nitens (Petrie) Domin.
Oreomyrrhis andicola Endl. var. Colensoi (Hook, f.) T. Kirk.
andicola Endl. var. ramosa (Hook, f.) T. Kirk.
Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f.
squarrosa Forst.
Monroi Hook. f.
Anisotome Haaslii (F. Muell.) Cockayne and Laing.
filifolia (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing.
carnosula (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing.
aromatica Hook. f.
imbricata (Hook, f.) Laing.
Enysii (T. Kirk) Laing var. tennysonianium (Laing).
pilifera (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing.
Angelica Gingidium, (Forst. f.) Hook. f.
var. |
decipiens Hook. f.
* Here used to include the New Zealand forms of the subantarctic M. con ferti folium.
t Vide " Florist ic Notes."
j A very distinct shingle-slip form (or new species), of which, however, only oae
specimen was obtained. It is therefore not further described at present.
Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountains. 73
Cornaceae.
Ci/rukia Cotoneaster Raoul.
Griselinia litt oralis Raoul.
Ericaceae.
GauUheria antipoda Forst. f.
rupestris R. Br.
Epacridaceae.
Pentachondra pumila (Forst. f.) R. Br.
Styphelia acerosa Sol.
Colensoi (Hook, f.) Diels.
fasciculata Forst. f.
Fraseri (A. Cunn.) F. Muell.
Dracophyllum rosmarini folium (Forst. 1.) R. Br.
uniflorum Hook. f.
Gentianaceae.
Gentiana corymbifera T. Kirk.
patula (T. Kirk) Cheesem.
bellidijolia Hook. f.
divisa (T. Kirk) Cheesem. var. magnifica T. Kirk.
Borraginaceae.
Myosotis australis R. Br.
Forsteri Lehm.
Traversii Hook. f.
laeta Cheesem.
macrantha Hook. f.
Laingii Cheesem.
Labiatae.
Mentha Cunninghamii (A. Cunn.) Benth.
Scrophularinaceae.
Mazus radicans (Hook, f.) Cheesem.
Veronica subalpina Cockayne.
divergens (?) Cheesem.
salicifolia Forst. f.
vernicosa Hook. f. var. canterburiensis Armstr.
buxifolia Benth.
buxifolia Benth. var. patens Cheesem.
cupressoides Hook. f.
epacridea Hook. f.
macrantha Hook. f.
Raoulii Hook. f.
pulvinaris Hook. f. & Benth.
linifolia Hook. f.
catarractae Forst. f. var. lanceolata Hook. f.
Lyallii Hook. f.
Bidwillii Hook.
decumbens Armstr.
pinguijolia Hook. f.
leiophylla Cheesem.
Gilliesiana T. Kirk.
lycopodioides Hook. f.
Haastii Hook. f.
74 Transactions.
Ourisia macrophylla Hook. f.
caespitosa Hook. f.
Euphrasia Monroi Hook. f. Thus listed by us, but perhaps E. Laingri
Petrie.
Lentibulariaceae.
Utricularia novae-zelandiae Hook. f.
Plantago Raoulii Decne.
Brownii Rapin.
spathulata Hook. f.
lanigera Hook. f.
Plantaginaceae.
Rubiaceae.
Coprosma serrulata Hook. I.
rhamnoides A. Cunn.
parviflora Hook. f.
ramulosa Petrie.
virescens (?) Petrie.
brunnea (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
propinqua A. Cunn.
linariifolia Hook. f.
repens Hook. f.
Petriei Cheesem.
(falium tenuicaule A. Cunn.
umbrostim Sol.
Campanulaceae.
Pratia angulata (Forst. f.) Hook. f.
macrodon Hook. f.
Lobelia Roughii Hook. f.
Wahlenbergia cartilaginea Hook. f.
4
Stylidiaceae.
Phyllachne clavigera F. Muell.
Colensoi Berggr.
Forstera Bidwillii Hook. f.
Compositae.
Lagenophora petiolata Hook. f.
Barkeri T. Kirk.
Brachycome pinnata Hook. f.
Thomsoni T. Kirk var. membrani folia (?) T. Kirk.
Sinclairii Hook. f.
Olearia cymbifolia (Hook, f.) Cheesem.
avicenniaefolia Hook. f.
virgata Hook. i. Forma with rigid branches and spiny bjjanchleta.
Celmisia Walker i T. Kirk.
lateralis Buch.
discolor Hook. f.
incana Hook. f.
incana Hook. f. var. petiolata T. Kirk.*
petiolata Hook. f. var. membranacea T. Kirk.
* Vide " Floristic Notes.
Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountains. 75
ilelmisia coriacea Hook. f.
hngifolia Cass. Shingle-slip form.
longifolia Cass. var. alpina T. Kirk.
laricifolia Hook. f.
bellidioides Hook. f.
viscosa Hook. f.
sessiliflora Hook. f.
spectabilis Hook. f.
Vittadinia australis A. Rich.
Haastia pulvinaris Hook. f.
pulvinaris Hook. f. var. minor Laing.*
Gnaphalium Traversii Hook. f. var. Mackayi Buch.
nitidulum Hook, f.*
luteo-album L.
collinum. Labill.
Raoulia australis Hook. f.
apice-nigra T. Kirk.
tenuicaulis Hook. f.
eximia Hook. f.
Monroi Hook. f.
glabra Hook. f.
grandiflora Hook. f.
bryoides Hook. f.
Helichrysum bellidioides (Forst. f.) Willd.
grandiceps Hook. f.
depressum Hook. f. (Benth. & Hook. f.).
microphyllum Hook. f. (Benth. & Hook. f.).
Selago (Hook, f.) Benth. & Hook.
Cassinia albida (T. Kirk) Cockayne-
fulvida Hook. f.
Graspedia uniflora Forst. L
alpina Backhouse.
Ootula atrata Hook. f.
atrata. Forma with brown florets.
squalida Hook. f.
dioica Hook. f.
Erechtites prenanthoides D. C.
scaberula Hook. f.
glabrescens T. Kirk.
quadridentata D. C.
Senecio lagopus Raoul.
bellidioides Hook. f.
Lyallii Hook. f.
scorzoneroides Hook. f.
cassinioides Hook. f.
Bidwillii Hook. f.
geminatus T. Kirk.
Microseris Forsteri Hook. f.
Taraxacum glabratum (Forst. f.) Cockayne.
* Vide " Floristio Notes."
76 Transfictians.
Art. IV. — Notes on the Plant Covering of Codfish Island and ike Rugged
Islands.
By D. L. Poppelwell.
[Read before the Otago Institute. 3rd October, ]y]].\
Plate IX.
A. General.
Codfish Island and the Rugged Islands lie oft' the north-west coast of
Stewart Island, and form practically the first barrier met by the south-
western storms on their long journey from the Antarctic ice. Unstayed
by any break for thousands of miles, these fierce winds sweep across the
waters, raising them in angry waves, which, gathering strength and bulk
as they travel, ultimately strike these islands with almost irresistible force.
The torn and ragged nature of the western coasts speak eloquently of their
struggle with these keen winds and storms. The vegetation, too, has
through the ages found its place in the struggle for existence both as
regards its form and distribution. Dr. Cockayne, in his splendid and
exhaustive report on the botany of Stewart Island, has confined himself
practically to the mainland, hence a few notes on the flora of these hitherto -
unbotanized western ramparts may be interesting.
During Easter, along with a small party of Gore residents, including
Messrs. G. J. Anderson, M.P., and R. Fisher, to the latter of whom I am
indebted for the photographs here published, I had the good fortune, by
the courtesy of the Messrs. Hansen Brothers, to spend the best part of
two days at Codfish Island. We left Half-moon Bay by steamer early on
Monday, the 17th April, arriving at Sealers' Bay, Codfish Island, at
10.30 a.m., and left again at 3.30 p.m. on the following day. I spent
several hours of each day examining the flora, and this paper is based
upon observation and notes taken on the spot.
Sealers' Bay about eighty years ago was the site of a sealing settlement ;
hence, no doubt, the name. The island has long since been deserted, but
signs of the old settlement are evident in the clearings in the forest where
the huts once stood.
The indigenous species noted numbered 111, belonging to seventy-six
genera and thirty-seven orders.
In addition to the indigenous plants, some five naturalized plants were
observed, all of which were confined to the open land, and all but one were
on the sand-dunes. Perhaps the most abundant of these plants were
Mentha spicata and Foeniculum officinale. Both of these species are
used for flavouring sauces, and no doubt were a survival of the old
settlement on Codfish Island. Two other plants were Cryptostemma calen-
dulaceum and Cnicus lance<datus. the seeds of which were no doubt carried
by the wind. The fifth plant was the almost universal Poa pratensis,
probably introduced bv cattle, of which there are a few on the island.
None of these colonists played any dominant part in the plant-asso-
ciation, although Mentha spicata held its own with the ferns — Pteridium
aquilinum and Lomaria capensis — in the forest clearings, and Foeniculum
officinale occupied the position of isolated plants fairly plentifully dotted
ov«t the sandhills.
PoppeLiWELLi. — Plant Covering, Codfish Island and Bugged Islands. 77
B. Physiography.
The physical features of Codfish Island are much less rugged than those
of the shore of the mainland, distant about a mile, where the jagged
peaks of the Ruggedy Mountains, rising boldly from the sea, are wild in
the extreme. The Rugged Islands form the northern extremity of the
range, and partake of the same nature as the main chain. Codfish
Island is much more level, and, although about two miles and a half
square, no part of it reaches a greater height than about 500 ft. It is
forest-clad, except in one or two places where there are small beaches
Hanked with rocky buttresses and backed by sandhills.
C. Plant-associations.
The vegetation may be fitly dealt with under the several headings of
(1) Dunes.' (2) Cliffs, (3) Forest.
(1.) Dunes.
The shore at Sealers' Bay consists of a sandy beach about half a mile
long, terminating in rocky abutments, and having a row of dunes at the
back. These dunes are only about 5 chains deep, and rise, at their eastern
extremity to a height of about 100 ft. They are fairly sheltered by the
background of hills, but are exposed to the north and north-west winds.
Most of the dunes are fixed, but in parts the sand is still unstable, and
towards the east the dunes show evidence, in their greater height and loose
appearance, of the effect of the northerly gales. The fore dune, as is usual,
is covered with the common sand-binding Scirpus frondosus. Behind this,
however, a much more complex vegetation is found. The principal plants
of the association are Poa caespitosa, with an abundance of Linum mono-
gynum, Coprosma acerosa. and Pimelea Lyallii ; while dotted throughout
these are Coprosma Colensoi. Halorrhagis erecta, Euphorbia glauca, Sdrptis
nodosus, Senecio lautus, and Anisotome intermedia, with stunted forms of
Myrsine. Urvillei. Coprosma acerosa forms in many places an almost conr
tinuous mat running flat over the sand, and Pimelea Lyallii also takes
on a similar habit, except it is climbing through some other plant, when
in places it reaches a height of about 4 ft. In damper situations patches
of Hierochloe redolens and Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae make their appear-
ance, while here and there Acaena Sanguisorbae, Geranium sessiliflorum, or
Miiehlenbeckia cotnplexa creep over the surface. Taraxacum officinale vai\
glabratum and Erechtites prenanthoides are also found, with occasional
plants of Veronica elliptica, Calystegia Soldanella, Lorn aria alpina, Epilo-
bium nerterioides. E. junceum, Gnaphalium luteo-album, and G. japonicum.
In parts there are many plants of Craspedia uniflora var. robusta, with
the naturalized Foeniculum officinale. Where the dunes are absolutely
stable the plant covering changes somewhat, and the following typical
association is found : Pteridium aguilinum in patches, Poa caespitosa,
Scirpus nodosus, Phormium Cookianum, Acaena. Sanguisorbae, Halorrhagis
erecta, Veronica elliptica, with dwarf specimens of Aristotelia racemosa.
Dicksonia squarrosa, Aspidium vestitum,, Senecio rotundif alius, Astelia
nervosa. Lomaria capinsis. Asplenium lucidum, Craspedia uniflora. and
.11 yr sine Urvillei. Further back, next the edge of the bush, Lepto-
spermum scoparium is found, with here and there small patches of Lageno-
phora pumila, Gunnera arenaria. Sonchus I ill oralis, and Apium prostratum.
and nearer the shore Rumex neglectus. Festuca littoralis is also fairly
78 Transactions.
plentiful. At their highest point, where the dune-plants merge into the
forest, a heath is found, in which the principal plants are Lomaria capensis,
Leptospermum scoparium, Muehlenbeckia complexa, Lycopodium volubile,
Gaultheria antipodum var. erecta, Aristotelia racemosa, Carpodetus serratus,
stunted Weinmannia racemosa, Dracophyllum longifolium, and Pteridium
aquilinum.
(2.) Cliffs.
The association in these situations differs a good deal according to the
varying situation, the principal factor in the change being, apparently,
wind. Thus, on the exposed points, where the wind has most effect, the
principal plant is Olearia angustifolia, which is so plentiful in places as to
form an almost pure association. Hitherto Olearia angustifolia has been
reported only from south of Paterson Inlet, on the east coast of Stewart
Island, and from the north and south ends of Mason's Bay, on the western
coast. The only other localities where it has been observed, apart from the
Stewart Island habitats mentioned, are the base of Bluff Hill and Puysegur
Point. Not only is it the chief plant of the coastal cliffs of Codfish Island,
but it is equally abundant on the seaward base of the Ruggedy Mountains.
It forms almost the sole plant covering of the Rugged Islands, where the
whole cliff-sides for hundreds of feet are one close mat of stunted weather-
beaten plants whose handsome grey-green rosette-like foliage and rounded
form stamp the physiognomy of the coast-line in a most marked manner.
Dr. Cockayne, in his Stewart Island report, draws attention to the differ-
ence in the size of the leaves on different plants of this species, noting
two forms of leaf, one about f in. to 1 in. in diameter and the other only
about \ in. wide. This same peculiarity was noted by me on bushes grow-
ing side by side, and seemed to me to be constant throughout all the
leaves of the particular plants, so as almost to suggest varietal distinction.
Although Olearia angustifolia is the chief plant on cliffs, its predominance
is confined to the water's edge, and even there in places it is much mixed
with Senecio rotundifolius. Speaking generally, Senecio rotundifolius in-
creases as a greater height is reached, when Olearia Colensoi creeps into
the association. The three plants named form the basis of the " Senecio-
Olearia" association so exhaustively dealt with in Dr. Cockayne's report
above mentioned. Growing throughout this association will be found
numerous specimens of Veronica elliptica, with here and there plants of
Phormium Cookianum, Anisotome intermedia, Dracophyllum longifolium, and
the shore-ferns Lomaria dura and Asplenium lucidum. Occasional speci-
mens of Nothopanax Colensoi push their green heads through the close-
growing scrub. On the rocks at the foot of the cliffs the plants noted
were Crassula moschata, Selliera radicans, Apium prostratum, Myosotis
albiflora, Scirpus nodosus, and Gentiana saxosa. Where the peat was drier
Gnaphalium trinerve and Aspidium vestitum were also observed.
At the western side of the bay, where the cliffs are more sheltered, a
much richer flora was seen. Here, as before. Olearia angustifolia and
Senecio rotundifolius predominated, but Olearia Colensoi also appeared in
increased numbers, until, as the top of the steep faces was reached, it
took the place of the first-named species in the lower formation. Of
smaller plants, the principal were Tetragonia trigyna, Anisotome inter-
media (plentiful), Gentiana saxosa, Crassula moschata, Poa Astoni and
P. Colensoi (on the bare points), Asplenium lucidum, A. obtusatum, Mesem-
bryanthemum australe, Poa foliosa, Lomaria dura, Phormium Cookianum.,
Poppelwell. — Plant Covering, Codfish Island and Rugged Islands. 79
Astelia nervosa, and Stilbocarpa Lyallii. The last-mentioned was growing
in large colonies in several places visible from the sea. Its magnificent
leaves, from actual measurement, attained 17 in. in width, and the plants
were over 3 ft. tall. Gradually as the rock-face was receded from and the
soil became more peaty the scrub became more mixed, until it ultimately
merged into forest. An almost similar formation to that described above
apparently covers the seaward base of the Kuggedy Mountains, and extends
round the north-west coast of the mainland of Stewart Island, although
the northern coast seems to want the Olearia angustifolia altogether. Of
this latter fact I am not certain, as I did not land, and was scarcely close
enough inshore to be sure.
The Hugged Islands vegetation may all be described under this heading,
as the islands are nothing more than great rocks. The cliff-faces for
hundreds of feet are absolutely bare where the full blast of the south-
western winds strikes them, but on the northern and eastern sides, where
there is a little shelter, the cliffs are covered, as before mentioned, with
a close mat of Olearia angustifolia. In places Veronica elliptica clings to
the rocks, with some plants of Phormium Cookianum and a few tussock-
grasses. An occasional stunted plant of Metrosideros lucida appears to
maintain a precarious existence on the higher points, with a specimen or
two of Olearia Colensoi, and probably some Senecio rotundifolius. Anistome
intermedia and some of the smaller plants also appear in the crevices.
The dominant feature, however, of these wild and inhospitable rock-faces
is Olearia angustifolia, which is flattened against the cliffs in small and
stunted growth in the stormy area, and in proportion as shelter is found
in the nooks it becomes larger, and covers the nakedness of the rocks with
a grey-green mantle.
(3.) The Forest.
General. . .
The general aspect of the forest of Codfish Island presents a succession
of low ridges of sage-green colour, here and there relieved by darker patches.
The exposed points, on the contrary, are of much lighter colour, and when
the wind blows are traversed by waves of white by the underside of ihe
leaves being thrown up to sight. The top of the forest proper presents an
uneven surface, while that of the exposed points is rounded and smooth
on the surface. The dominant colour and uneven surface of the forest are
brought about by the superabundance of Dacrydium cwpressinum, whose
tall yellowish-green heads are lifted high above the general level of
the forest. The darker patches represent patches of Metrosideros lucida,
although the lighter-green foliage of Weinmannia racemosa is also notice-
able. The general forest may be placed under the category of the
" Rimu-Kamahi," and the more exposed scrub as belonging to the " Senecio-
Olearia " association of Cockayne's report. Of these divisions, the latter
may fairly be called " coastal scrub " and the former the " forest."
* Coastal Send:
The coastal scrub, as before mentioned, is comprised principally of
Olearia angustifolia, Senecio rotundifolius, and Olearia Colensoi, but Draco-
■phyllum longifolium, also plays a part in it. Close in their foliage, with
bent, weird stems and branches, these plants have almost an eerie look,
suggestive of some contest with taniwhas or other powers of darkness.
When, however, after a struggle up the cliff-side, one fairly penetrates
80 Transactions.
the scrub, the growth of lovely plant forms which greets the vision is
delightful. Here the coast-ferns Asplenium lucidum and Lomaria dura
grow to perfection, while straggling plants of Phormium Cookianum are
found seemingly somewhat out of their station, which is usually on the
coastal cliffs in this region. Great colonies of Stilbocarpa Lyallii make
their appearance, in places over 3 ft. tall, and with their large reniform
leaves suggesting more a tropical growth than a subantarctic one. These
latter plants are extremely abundant, the patches in places extending
over areas almost a quarter of an acre in extent. As we ascend the hill
the association changes. Asplenium obtusatum of large dimensions puts
in an appearance, along with Lomaria discolor, Hypolepis tenuifolia, Astelia
nervosa, Polypodium Billardieri, Nothopanax Colensoi, Myrsine Urvillei.
Coprosma lucida, and Dicksonia squarrosa. Here there is evidence of bird-
life. The burrows of the mutton-bird (Puffinus griseus) ramify in all direc-
tions through the peaty soil, and no doubt affect the plant-association by
draining and aerating the soil, while the traffic of the birds themselves
must destroy much of the usual undergrowth of the forest. What appeared
to be a direct effect of the nests of this petrel was noticeable in one place
where a mass of the fern Lomaria dura was growing on a heap of humus
which was literally honeycombed with burrows. The plants were much larger
than usual, and each had a distinct caudex about 12 in. high. At a height
of about 250 ft. the forest became more mixed and the undergrowth thicker.
Nertera dichondraefolia grew on the logs, Coprosma foetidissima became
common, and Aspidium vestitum was added to the former association. At
300 ft. the first Metrosideros lucida was encountered and Dracophyllum
became fairly plentiful. Nothopanax Edgerleyi also appeared, and Myrsine
Urvillei, Dicksonia squarrosa, and Nothopanax Colensoi became plentiful.
The forest-floor now became covered with Lomaria capensis and Lomaria
discolor, the former especially attaining large dimensions, while the speci-
mens of Asplenium obtusatum became larger also. As the top of the ridge
was reached Pittosporum Colensoi var. fasciculatum appeared, with a few
plants of Pteridium aquilmum and Rubus australis. From the top a fine
view was obtained to the south-west. Looking over the forest-top, one
could see the wind-swept appearance to the south-west, the principal plants
being stunted Metrosideros lucida, Olearia Colensoi, Senecio rotundifolius,
Dracophyllum longifolium, with occasional specimens of Myrsine Urvillei.
Proceeding along the ridge. Weinmannia racemosa became more plentiful,
and Astelia increased on the forest-floor, along with Lomaria capensis,
Aspidium vestitum, Asplenium bulbiferum, and A. obtusatum, the general
depth of the floor-covering being about 4 ft. In hollows where the
ground was damper a strong growth of fern-trees (Dicksonia squarrosa),
with No'hopanax simplex, IShefflera digitata, and a broad-leaved species of
Carex ternaria, was seen, while the logs became covered with Luzuriaga
marginata and filmy ferns. Here also a few examples of Podocarpus
ferrugineus were seen, and the tangled stems of the Rhipogonum scandens
blocked the way, and marked the edge of the forest proper.
** The " Rimu-Kamahi " Forest.
Lying to the back of the sandhills, an extensive area of forest of this
class is visible. Its outer fringe touches the sand-dunes, and it extends
to the highest parts of the island, although the trees become stunted on
the heights, and rocks show through the low scrub on the very summit
The lowland bush consists principally of Grisrlinia liltoralis, Muehlenbeckia
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate IX.
Fig. 1. — Rugged Islands, from the North.
Codfish Island in distance.
Fig. 2. — View of Northern Aspect of One of Rugged Islands.
Olearia angustifolia in bloom. Olearia Colensoi on summit.
Fig. 3. — Rugged Islands (Weather Side).
The exposed parts are practically devoid of plant covering, but crevices full
of stunted Olearia angustifolia.
Face p. 80.]
Poppelwkll. — Plant Covering, Codfish Island and Rugged Islands. 81
complexa, Dicksonia squarrosa, Hemitelia Smithii, Fuschia excorticata, Car-
podetus serratus, Weinmannia racemosa, Pittosporum Colensoi, Myrsine
Urvillei, Coprosma lucida, Aristotelia racemosa, SchefpZera digitata, Pseudo-
panax crassifolia, and Rhipogonum scandens. Some plants of the latter
were resplendent with their scarlet drupes. The principal undergrowth
consisted of Lomaria dura, L. lanccolata, Asplenium bulbiferum, Nertera
dichondracfolia, Asplenium flaccidum, Polypodium Billardieri, P. australe,
Lomaria capensis, Hymenophyllum demissum, H. dilatatum, H. sanguino-
lentum, and a species of Uncinia. In the damper parts I also noted
Nothopanax Colensoi, Coprosma areolata, Nothopanax Edgerleyi, Alsophila
Colensoi, Rubus sohmidelioides, Leptospermum scoparium, Myrtus pedunculata,
Luzuriaga marginata, Suttonia divaricata, Coprosma Colensoi, C. propinqua,
C. rhamnoides, and Metrosideros hypericifolia. After crossing a swampy
creek the ground became drier, and Podocarpus Hallii, P. ferrugineus,
and Dacrydium cwpressinum joined the association, while the floor became
covered with Lomaria discolor of immense size. An occasional plant of
(hiultheria antipoda var. erecta was also seen. Dacrydium cupressinum here
tops the forest, some of the trees being of large size, with fine clean boles,
and in many cases no branches for a height of 40 ft. to 50 ft. There was
little growth of intermediate height, the principal being Metrosideros lucida.
Nothopanax Colensoi, and, strange to say, dwarfed specimens of Sencio
rotundifolius ; but the forest-floor was covered by a strong growth of
ferns, principally Lomaria capensis, L. discolor, and Polypodium Billardieri.
Astelia nervosa was also plentiful, with quantities of the beautiful filmy
ferns. At a height of about 350 ft. a plant of Styphelia acerosa was encoun-
tered, and from this upwards this plant became fairly plentiful. We
ultimately attained a height of about 450 ft. with little change in the
association, but Weinmannia racemosa became less and Metrosideros lucida
more plentiful, while the floor-covering alternated between Lomaria capensis
and Polypodium, Billardieri, each almost pure. On our return we traversed
an exposed open rocky spur, where a small heath made its appearance,
the principal plants being Lomaria capensis, Leptospermum scoparium,
Muehlenbechia complexa, Lycopodium volubile, Gaultheria antipodum, stunted
Aristotelia racemosa and Weinmannia racemosa, Dracophyllum longifolium,
Pferis incisa, and Pteridium aquilinum.
D. Conclusion.
There are, on the whole, apparently no very marked differences in the
flora of these islands and the adjoining mainland, except, of course, the
number of species is limited on the islands. The greatest surprise is perhaps
the abundance of Olearia angustifolia and the immense size of the ferny
undergrowth in the forest proper. The dune association is fairly well that
of Mason's Bay, and the mat-like habit of Pimelea Lyallii, Geranium sessili-
florum, and Coprosma acerosa is precisely that mentioned by Cockayne in
his reference to the dune-covering of Port William. The wind factor is
the principal one in determining the distribution of the plants, and the
" wind-tolerating " theory of Cockayne receives corroboration by the way
that Olearia Colensoi gives way to Senecio rotundifolius and the latter
to Olearia angustifolia, according to the degree of exposure. Where the
wind is sufficiently direct Olearia angustifolia itself disappears, leaving
practically bare rocks, as on the exposed sides of the Rugged Isles.
/
82 Transactions.
LIST OF SPECIES NOTED.
(1.) Pteridophyta.
Hymenophyllaceae.
Hymtnophyllum demissum (Forst. f.) Sw. On logs in damp forest
plentiful.
dilatatum (Forst. f.) Sw. On logs in clamp forest ; plentiful.
sanguinolentum (Forst. f.) Sw. On logs in damp forest ; plentiful.
tunbridgense (L.) Sm. On logs in damp forest ; plentiful
Cyatheaceae.
Dicksonia squamosa (Forst. f.) Sw. Abundant in forest.
Hemitelia Smithii (Hook, f.) Hook. Forest ; not plentiful.
Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. Forest ; rare.
Polypodiaceae.
Polypodium Billardieri K. Br. Plentiful in forest.
australe Mett. Logs in damp forest.
Pteridium aquilinum Kuhn. Heath and stable dunes.
Pteris incisa Thunb. Damp forest.
Aspidium vestitum Swartz. Fairly abundant in forest.
Asplenium bulbiferum Forst. f. Abundant in forest.
flaccidum Forst. f. Abundant in forest.
lucidum Forst. f. Coastal scrub ; plentiful.
Lomaria alpina Spreng. Dunes ; rare.
dura Moore. Coastal scrub ; abundant.
lanceolata Spreng. Forest ; abundant.
capensis Willd. Forest ; abundant.
discolor Willd. Forest ; abundant.
Hypolepis tenuifoli a (Forst. f.) Bernh. Forest; abundant.
Lycopodiaceae.
Lycopodiwn volubile Forst. f. Stony heath ; plentiful.
(2.) Spermophyta.
Taxaceae.
Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk. In forest ; common.
terrugineus Don. In forest ; fairly common.
Dacrydium cvpressinum Sol. In forest ; abundant.
Gramineae.
Hierochloe redolens (Foist, f.) R. Br. Damp dunes.
Poa foliosa Hook. f. Coastal cliffs.
Astoni Petrie. Coastal cliffs.
caespitosa Forst. f. Dunes ; abundant.
Colensoi (?) Hook. f. Coastal cliffs ; rare.
Pestuca liitoralis La bill. Dunes ; fairly plentiful.
Popi'Kt.wkll. — Plant Covering, Codfish Island and Hugged Islands. 83
Cyperaceae.
Scirpus nodosus (R. Br.) Rottb. Dunes ; plentiful.
frondosus Banks & Sol. Dunes ; plentiful.
Uncinia pedicellata Kiikenth. Damp forest.
Carex ternaria Forst. f. Wet ground ; common.
trifida Cav. Damp ground ; open forest.
Liliaceae.
Rhipogonum scandens Forst. Plentiful in forest.
Luzuriaga marginata (Banks & Sol.) Benth. & Hook, f . Logs in forest.
Astelia nervosa Banks & Sol. Dunes, sheltered rocks, forest.
Phormium Cookianum Le Jolis. Coastal rocks and scrub.
Polygonaceae.
Rumex neglectus Kirk. Stony beach.
Muehlenheckia complexa (A. Cunn.) Meissn. Dunes, damp forest, heatli.
Aizoaceae.
Mesembryanthemum australe Sol. Coastal rocks ; rare.
Tetragonia trigyna Banks & Sol. Coastal cliffs ; rare.
Crassulaceae.
Crassula rnoschata Forst. f. Coastal rocks.
Saxifragaceae.
Carpodetus serratus Forst. Forest ; plentiful.
Pittosporaceae.
Pitlosporum tenui folium Banks & Sol. In forest ; raw.
Colensoi var. fasciculatnm (?) Hook. f. In forest ; rare.
Cunoniaceae.
Weinmannia racemosa L. f. Abundant in forest.
Rosaceae.
Rubus australis Forst. f. In damp forest.
schmidelioides A. Cunn. In damp forest.
Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl. Plentiful on stable dunes.
Geraniaceae.
Geranium, sessiliflorum Cav. Dunes ; abundant.
Linaceae.
Linum monogynum Forst. f. Dunes ; abundant.
Euphorbiaceae.
Euphorbia glcmca Forst. f. Dunes ; abundant.
84 Transactions.
Elaeocarpaceae.
Aristotelia racemosa (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. Plentiful : stable dunes and forest-
edge.
Thymelaeaceae.
Pimelea Lyallii Hook. f. Dunes ; abundant.
Myrtaceae.
Ltptospermum scoparium Forst. Edge of forest : plentiful.
Metrosideros lucida (Forst. f.) A. Rich. Abundant in forest.
hypericifolia A. Cunn. Rare in forest.
Myrtus pedunculata Hook. f. Damp forest ; rare.
Onagraceae.
Epilobium nerterioides A. Cunn. Dunes ; fairly plentiful.
jvnceum Sol. Dunes ; rare.
linnaeoides Hook. f. Dunes ; rare.
Fuchsia excorlicata L. f. Edge of forest : rare.
Halorrhagaceae.
Halorrhaqis erecta (Murr.) Schindler. Dunes : plentiful.
Gunnera armaria Cheeseman. Dunes.
Araliaceae.
Stilbocarpa Lyallii ,). B. Armstrong. Coastal scrub ; abundant.
Nothopanax simplex Forst. f. In forest ; rare.
Edgerleyi (Hook, f.) Seem. In forest : plentiful.
Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem. In forest ; plentiful.
Schefflera digital a Forst. Damp forest.
Pseudopanax crassifolium (Sol.) C. Koch. Plentiful in forest.
Umbelliferae.
Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae D. C. Damp dunes.
Apium prostratum Lab. Coastal rocks and dunes.
Anisotome intermedia Hook. f. Coastal rocks ; plentiful.
Cornaceae.
Griselinia littoralis Raoul. Forest ; not plentiful.
Ericaceae.
GauUheria antipoda Forst. f. var. erecta Cheesm. Forest ; comparatively
rare.
Epacridaceae.
Styphelia acerosa Sol. In forest ; fairly plentiful.
Draeophyllum longifolium (Forst. f.) R. Br. Coastal scrub : abundant.
Myrsinaceae.
Myrsine Urvillei (A.D. C.) Mez. Dunes and forest, coastal scrub.
Sultonia divarieata (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. Damp forest.
Primulaceae.
Samolus repens Forst. var. procumbens, R. Knuth. Damp rocky situa-
tions near shore.
PoppElwell. — Plant Covering, Codfah-- Island and Rugged Islands. 85
Gentianaceae.
Gentiana saxosa Forst. f. Coastal rocks ; plentiful.
Convolvulaceae.
Calystegia Soldanella (L.) R. Br. Dunes ; rare.
Boraginaceae.
Myosotis aUriflora (T. Kirk) Cheesem. Rocks near sea.
Scrophularinaceae.
Veronica salicifolia Forst. f. In damp forest.
elliptica Forst. f. Plentiful on coastal rocks.
Rubiaceae.
Coprosma lucida Forst. 1. In forest ; rare.
areolata Cheesem. Damp forest.
foetidissiwa Forst. Abundant in forest.
rhamnoides A. Cunn. Plentiful in damp places.
acerosa A. Cunn. Abundant on dunes.
propinqua A. Cunn. Damp forest.
Colensoi Hook. f. Plentiful in damp forest.
Nertera depressa Banks & Sol. On logs in forest.
dichondraefolia (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. On loss in forest.
Goodeniaceae.
Selliera radicans Cav. Damp places on coastal rocks.
Compositae.
Layenophora pumila (Forst. f.) Cheesem. Stable dunes.
Brachycome Thomsonii T. Kirk. Stable dunes.
Olearia angusti folia Hook. f. Coastal cliffs ; abundant.
Colensoi Hook. f. Coastal scrub ; abundant.
Gnaphalium trinerve Forst. f. Dunes ; plentiful.
luteo-album L. Dunes ; plentiful.
japonicum Thunb. Dunes ; plentiful.
Craspedia uniflora Forst. f. var. robusta Hook. f. Dunes ; abundant
Erecktites prenanthoides (A. Rich.) D. C. Dunes; fairly plentiful.
Senecio laidus Forst. f. Dunes ; rare.
rotundifolius Hook. f. Coastal scrub ; abundant. In forest ; rare.
Taraxacum glabratum (Forst. f.) Cockayne. Dunes ; airly plentiful.
Sonchus Uttoralis (Kirk) Cockayne. Dunes.
LIST OF NATURALIZED PLANTS.
Mentha .fpicaLa L. Old clearings.
Focniculum officinale Hook. f. Sand-dunes.
Cryptostemma calendulaceum R. Br. Sand-dunes.
Cnicus anceolatus Willd. Sand-dunes.
Poa pratcnsis L. Sand-dunes.
86 Transactions.
Art. V. — List of Lichens and Fungi collected in the Kermadec Islands
in 1908.
By W. R. B. Oliver.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.]
Through the kindness of Mr. T. F. Cheesernan, F.L.S., who forwarded
the lichens and fungi which I collected on Sunday Island to the Director
of the Kew Botanical Gardens, and subsequently furnished me with the
names of the species represented, I am able to publish the following list.
The fungi were identified by Mr. George Massee, and the lichens by Mr.
A. D. Cotton. I know of no record of fungi from the Kermadecs, but in
the " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora " (1864-66) Sir J. D. Hooker
has recorded two lichens — Cladonia furcata and Lecidea intermixta — collected
by Mr. J. Milne, who visited the group in H.M.S. " Herald " in 1854.
Neither of these was collected by me.
Lichens and the fungus Scorias spongiosa form a conspicuous feature
of the forest on Sunday Island — -not by the number of species represented,
which are few, but by the abundance of individuals. In the upper wet
forest almost every stem of palms and trees is covered with mosses and
lichens. Of the latter, those especially common are the foliaceous Sticta
variabilis and Leptogium cyanescens, and the crustaceous Baeomyces
pertenuis and Physcia speciosa. In exposed places, as on ridges and cliffs,
where more light penetrates and the wind is more desiccating in its
effect, the tree-stems support chiefly the foliaceous Sticta aurata and the
drooping Usnea barbata. On rocks along the sea-coast Xanthoria parietinia
and Physcia pulverulenta are frequent. All the upper branches and twigs
of the pohutukawa, especially in the lower dry forest, where they are the
dominant trees, are completely clothed with Scorias spongiosa, which
showers its black spores copiously on the forest below.
Lichens.
Baeomyces pertenuis Stirb.
Forest ; on stems of nikau-palms and trees.
Cladonia capitella Bab.
Forest ; among mosses on horizontal branches of trees.
Cladonia Florkeana Fr.
On logs in open.
Cladonia aggregata Eschw.
Forest ; on damp ground.
Leptogium cyanescens Kbr.
Forest ; on nikau-palm stems, in damp situations. Thallus soft and
moist, like an alga, and in dry weather shrivels at the edges.
Sticta variabilis Ach.
Forest ; abundant on tree-stems.
Omvek. — Lichens and Fun<p collected in Kermadec Islands. 87
Sticta aurata Sm.
Forest ; abundant on tree-stems, in dry open situations.
Ramalina fastigiata Ach.
On rocks.
Ramalina farinacea Fr.
Scrub ; on tree-stems, in dry open places
Usnea barbata Fr.
Forest ; abundant on trees on cliffs and other exposed places.
Xanthoria parietinia T. Fr.
On rocks on sea-coast, from just above high-water mark.
Physcia pulverulenta Fr.
On rocks and trees, in open places.
Physcia speciosa Nyl.
Forest ; abundant on palm-stems and trees with smooth bark.
Fungi.
Arcyria punicea Pers.
Trichia fallax Pers.
Forest-floor ; on underside of dead leaves of nikau-pahns (Rhopalo-
.slylis Baueri).
Scorias spongiosa Fr.
Forest ; on pohutukawa-trees {Metrosideros villosa). This fungus com-
pletely covers the upper branches of the pohutukawa-trees with a sooty
black moss-like growth to a depth of £ in. to £ in. It continually sheds
its black spores, so that the leaves of all trees and shrubs below are
covered with a black dust. Locally it is called " pohutukawa soot."'
which well expresses its appearance and habit of coating everything with
a layer of black.
Auricularia polytricha Mont.
On dead trunks of Corynocarpus laevigata.
Fomes zealandicus Cke.
Fomes applanatus Fr.
Polystichus hirsutus Fr.
Polystichus tabacinus Cke.
Daedalia subsulcata B. & Br.
Favolus rhipidium Sacc.
Schizophyllum commune Fr.
Forest ; on decaying logs.
Clathrus cibarius Fisch.
On mound, in forest.
88 Transaction*.
Art. VI. — A Revision of the Classification of New Zealand Caradrinina.
By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911. J
I have here revised the genera of Caradrinina occurring in New Zealand,
taking into consideration the large amount of work done in the group
of late years, especially by Professor J. B. Smith and Sir George Hampson.
Both these authors have done admirable work in the careful investiga-
tion of structural characters, but in my judgment both have made too
many genera, and have thus been led in some cases to rely upon points
of distinction that are indefinite, slight, unimportant, unnatural, or
even illusive and imaginary ; and Sir George Hampson has unfortunately
adopted a principle of generic nomenclature which I believe is not now
held by any other leading lepidopterists, and is never likely to meet with
general acceptance. It will be well, therefore, to begin by making some
general remarks explanatory of my own principles and practice in these
two subjects.
In the matter of generic nomenclature I hold as follows : —
(1.) A generic name is void if published without description. Hampson
agrees, but there are writers who do not. The names of Hubner's
Tentamen are therefore void.
(2.) Where an original genus included more than one species, and the
author has not in any way expressed which species was typical, later
writers can limit the meaning of the genus at pleasure by expressed
intention (accidental limitation by casual mention has no effect), such
limitations taking effect in order of priority. Hampson assumes the
first species of those mentioned by the original author to be the type,
which is certainly simple, but has no other justification whatever, and
it would be equally simple to assume the last.
(3.) Fifty years' use in a particular sense establishes a. title, and bars
claim of priority.
On these principles a reasonable and legitimate use is obtained with-
out much disturbance of recognized nomenclature.
As to the characterization of genera, no doubt the subject is a very
difficult one, and there will always be room for much difference of opinion.
But a genus must represent a definite section of a branch of the gene-
alogical tree ; it must not be made up of two sections tied together, or it
will be unnatural, and, whilst it is certainly not always possible to define
absolutely the distinction between two genera, an author must have struc-
tural grounds for referring any species to one or other, or the genera will
be impracticable. A genus must be geographically consistent : it must
have originated in one place only, and have spread thence to other regions,
and its geographical distribution should not be incongruous ; if it is, the
supposed genus should be regarded with suspicion. Closely allied species
must not be placed in genera regarded as phylogenetically remote. The
value of a character for generic definition can only be determined prac-
tically ; in one set of insects a particular character may be fixed and suffi-
cient for generic and even family limitation, and in another the very same
Meyrick. — Revision of the New Zealand Caradrinina. 89"
character may be variable even within the limits of the same species ;
therefore we must not assume that if a character separates natural genera
in one instance it will also do the same in another. There is no scientific
reason why secondary sexual characters should not be used to define
wenera in those cases where they are found to indicate natural genera in
accordance with the above-mentioned principles ; tufts of hair (probably
scent-producing) in the male sex are, however, found in practice to be of
specific value only — at any rate, as a general rule. Hampson oddly and
inconsistently refuses to use any sexual characters for defining genera,
whilst invariably employing these same characters, even the specific tufts
of hairs, for forming sections of genera ; whereas these should in any case
be limited on exactly the same principles as genera, being of smaller value
but precisely the same nature.
I will give one or two specific instances of the unsatisfactory nature
of Hampson's results, to illustrate my meaning. Hampson makes a new
genus Eriopygodes for two European species and the Hawaiian euclidias
Meyr. This could only be explained geographically by supposing that
at some former period a straggler of the genus from Europe had reached
the Hawaiian Islands, which is unlikely, but, of course, possible. But
euclidias is an insect of striking appearance, and two other Hawaiian
species, compsias Meyr. and niphadopa Meyr., are structurally and super-
ficially so close to it that it is impossible to doubt they are closely related.
These are placed about seventy pages off in the genus Hyssia, which con-
tains about fifteen North American, European, and New Zealand species.
and a separate origin from another straggler is required for them. The
difference stated is that Hyssia has the thorax clothed with scales mixed
with hair, the abdomen with dorsal crest on first segment ; Eriopygodes,
the thorax clothed with hair only, abdomen without crests. But euclidias
(of which I have a long series) certainly has a small abdominal crest, and
the difference in clothing of thorax is imperceptible. I conclude that
euclidias must be transferred to Hyssia. But the only distinction be-
tween Hyssia and the cosmopolitan genus Cirphis, with 140 species, is
that Hyssia has the thorax clothed chiefly with hair-like scales, and
Cirphis almost entirely with hair. This is a distinction without a
difference, and, in effect, I am quite unable to distinguish the species
assigned to these two genera by this or any other structural character,
though they are separated by two hundred pages, and placed in widely
remote branches of the phylogenetic tree. I am therefore obliged to unite
them, which makes the Hawaiian species a local group representative of
a cosmopolitan genus, and puts quite a different face on the matter. But
on examining Eriopyga, with 100 species (chiefly American, some European),
only stated to differ from the above by absence of abdominal crest, I find
that some at any rate (e.g., the European Turca L.) certainly possess a
small crest (no doubt the character is often difficult of observation, because
the base of abdomen is clothed with rough hairs, and the thoracic hairs tend
to conceal it also, but when present it is formed by scales of a different
character and different colour), and must be referred to Hyssia also. I
am not well supplied with the American species, but the genus at least
requires cleansing. And Bornlia, with forty species, mostly African and
Australian, is only stated to differ from Eriopyga exactly as Hyssia does
from Cirphis, a distinction found to be inappreciable, for the supposed
difference in form of wing (more oblique termen) cannot be seriously re-
garded as a generic character, and therefore this also needs reconsideration.
90 Transactions.
Finally, Sideridis, admitted to have the basal crest of abdomen, and
only stated to differ from the above genera by having thorax clothed
entirely with hair (for we are called upon to distinguish three genera solely
by their having the thorax clothed respectively " entirely with hair,"
" almost entirely with hair," and " chiefly with hair-like scales "■ — a hair-
splitting task indeed), certainly possesses hair-scales in the thorax of at
least some species {e.g., the European lithargyria Esp.). and must, in my
opinion, be united with the Hyssia-Cirphis group as one genus, for which
the name Aletia has some authority of use, and must be adopted.
Now we will take an instance from the Agrotid group. Heliothis, in
the sense in which Hampson uses.it, is distinguished from Chloridea, which
includes most of the species usually regarded as typical Heliothis, by having
the eyes small and reniform, whilst in Chloridea they are large and rounded.
The term " reniform " (kidney -shaped) I regard as inaccurate. I have
never seen an eye to which I could apply that description. Smith calls
them oval, but perhaps ovate would be more correct, or suboval. But
the species placed in Heliothis are considerably smaller insects, and the
reduction in the size of the eye is hardly, if at all, more than proportionate
to the reduction in the size of the insect, whilst the alteration in shape is
very slight ; and in ononis F. the eye is really small, more reduced relatively
than in Heliothis, and similar in form (this is admitted by Smith, but not
mentioned at all by Hampson), and yet this species is assigned to Chloridea
on superficial appearance. I would unite these genera under the name
of Heliothis ; but even if they were kept separate I should still use Heliothis
for what Hampson calls Chloridea, and I gather that Smith would agree
with me, such being the established use. Probably, however, Heliocheilus,,
a group characterized by a special type of secondary sexual characters
but included by Hampson under Chloridea, should be separated as a good
genus. Pyrocleptria (Hampson) is no longer distinguishable from the com-
bined Heliothis -Chloridea group, and must be merged in it. The presence
or absence of a corneous ridge across the frontal prominence or a corneous
plate below it seems to me of little importance in this group, leading to
a multiplication of small similar genera without significance, and I should
treat is as of little more than specific value. On that view Hampson's.
genera Melaporphyria, Neocleptria, Rhodocleptria, Rhodophora, and Melir,
cleptria would also be merged in Heliothis, except that the Canthylidia group
of Melicleptria would be tenable as a distinct genus. This combination of
eight genera would, after all, only make a genus of some thirty-five species,
and would be natural and coherent ; whilst I would similarly write another
characteristically American group of genera, varying in the same way,
under the name Schinia Hb., distinguishable from Heliothis by the posr
session of several claws on outer side of fore tibiae instead of one. These
two natural groups are unnaturally intermixed in Hampson's arrangement.
I could multiply these instances, but perhaps the above will be sufficient
to show why I am unable to accept Hampson's general results without
considerable sifting. I am in no sense denying the value of his work, and
the following classification will exemplify that I have found points for
acceptance as well as for rejection.
CARADR1NINA.
I adhere to my view that the name Noctua, carrying with it the groups
names Noctuidae and Noctuina, is inapplicable in this connection, and if
has now been abandoned by most authorities ; but Hampson proposes tO':
Mkyrick. — Revision of the New Zealand Caradrinina. 91
use it in a sense in which it has never been used by any one, a result of his
principle which can only induce confusion.
The Caradrinina are a highly developed modern group of immense
extent, but, with the exception of the Melanchrid group of the Caradri-
nidae, they are represented in New Zealand only by a very few scattered
stragglers, and some very extensive families and subfamilies are not repre-
sented at all. There can be little doubt that these stragglers are the
outcome of accidental wind-borne immigration over a wide expanse of
sea, which accounts for their scantiness. If New Zealand ever had easy
communication with any land, such land did not at that time contain any
of these poorly represented groups ; but, as these groups are of relatively
recent origin, such communication may have existed in earlier times. Now,
as the Melanchrid group possesses no sort of advantage that would explain
their easier introduction, and as this group is, on the whole, quite as well
developed in New Zealand as in any other region, I consider it good evidence
that an easy communication with some land did once exist, and that the
Melanchrid group then existed in the land in question and made their
way into New Zealand. It does not follow that the Melanchrid group is
older than any other group of the Caradrinina, because any or all of the
'other groups may have coexisted at the same time in other regions cut off
from New Zealand and the land in question by wide seas. This raises the
interesting problem of determining where the land in question was, and
a proper comprehension of the classification and geographical distribution
of the Melanchrid group would enable us to solve it with tolerable cer-
tainty. We do not yet possess this comprehension, but offer the following
considerations. The only possible lands seem to be four — viz., Australia,
the Pacific islands, South America, and the Antarctic Continent. Australia
may be excluded ; the Melanchrid fauna is pretty well known, and makes
no near approximation to that of New Zealand. The South Pacific islands
are certainly incompletely known, but there is no evidence that what exists
of them at the present day possesses any special Melanchrid fauna such as
might be expected on this assumption. The Antarctic Continent naturally
possesses no existing fauna, and, although it may have served as a route
of communication, there is nothing to show that it ever had one of an
aboriginal type. We are therefore reduced to look to South America,
and the few species known from Chile, Patagonia, and the Falkland Isles
(probably only a small fraction of those existing) are of a character which,
in my opinion, agrees well with the New Zealand types, and probably
indicates real affinity. I suppose, therefore, that the Melanchrid fauna
entered New Zealand from South America, probably by way of the antarctic
land, where it may have undergone some modification during a perhaps
prolonged passage, at a date so far remote that considerable specific and
some generic development has taken place since. With it doubtless came
Xarithorhoe, Notoreas, Selidosema, Crambus, Diptychophora, Scoparia, and
Borkhausenia, the largest and most characteristic genera of the New Zealand
fepidopterous fauna. Probably the original source of this fauna was the
temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and it travelled to South
America by the great mountain-chain of the Kocky Mountains and Andes.
At the time when this fauna left North America probably the Indian region,
which has been the principal source of lepidopterous evolution, was isolated,
and extensive developments may have been going on there ; but, as the
Caradrinidae as a whole must have originated in some one region, it cer-
tainly seems that the Melanchrid group must have been, speaking generally,
92 Transactions.
the earliest brunch of the family, and I propose to regard it as such on
this ground, since the structural characters are. such as to give no help
either for or against the theory.
The generic characters given below are, for simplicity, drawn to apply
to New Zealand species only.
1. ARCTIADAE.
Vein 8 of hindwings anastomosing with upper margin of cell from base,
to near middle.
A large cosmopolitan family, which is barely represented, whilst the
allied Syntomid, Nolid. and Lithosiad groups are entirely absent.
1. Metacrias Meyr.
Metacrias Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1886, 749 : type, erichrysa
Meyr.
Tongue obsolete. Antennae in $ bipectinated to apex. Palpi short,
hairy, concealed in long hairs of head. Thorax and femora densely hairy
beneath. Anterior tibiae with apical claw, posterior tibiae without median
spurs. Forewings with 7 and 8 out of 9, 10 sometimes connected with
9 above 7. Hindwings with 3, 4, 5 nearly approximated, 6 and 7 connate
or short-stalked. 8 anastomosing to £ of cell. Wings in ? rudimentary
or absent.
This interesting endemic genus is of doubtful affinity, but appears to be
nearest to Ocnogyna, which is a genus of about a dozen species located
round the shores of the Mediterranean ; Hampson also assigns to it one
species from Peru.
1. M. Hvttoni Butl., Cist. Ent,, 2, 487 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
1886. 750; Huds.. N.Z. Moths, 5, pi. 4. 6: Hamps.. Cat., 3. 468.
Lake Wakatipu.
2. M. erichnjsa Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.. 1886. 749 : Huds.. N.Z.
Moths. 4, pi. 4. 5 : Hamps., Cat., 3, 469.
Mount Arthur ; 4.000 ft. Larva on Senecio.
3. M. strategica Huds., Entom.. 1889, 53 : ib.. N.Z. Moths. 4, pi. 4, 4 ;
Hamps. Cat.. 3, 468.
Richardson Range; 3,000ft.
2. Utetheisa Hiibn.
Utetkeisa Hiibn., Verz., 168 (1823) ; type, omatrix Linn. Deiopeia
Steph., 111. Brit, Ent, Haust,, 2, 92 (1829) ; type, fulchella Linn.
Head smooth. Tongue developed. Antennae in <$ ciliated, with longer
setae at joints. Palpi moderate, ascending, with loosely appressed scales.
Thorax smooth beneath. Posterior tibiae with all spurs very short. Fore-
wings with 7 and 8 out of 9, 10 connected with 9. Hindwings with 3, 4,
5 rather approximated. 6 and 7 connate or short-stalked. 8 anastomosing
to middle of cell.
A small cosmopolitan genus.
1. U. pulchella Linn.. Syst, Nat., 1, 534 (1758) ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,,
22, 217 ; Huds.. N.Z. Moths, 3, pi. 4, 3.
Wellington district, A recent immigrant, doubtfully established ;
occurs throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and South Pacific
islands. Larva on Myosotis, grasses, &c.
Mbtrick. — Revision of the- New Zealand Caradrinina. 93
2. HYPSIDAE.
Vein 8 of hind wings connected with cell by bar near base.
A rather small family, chiefly tropical. The following genus was
formerly placed in the Arctiadae. the approximation of vein 8 being so
.-.lose that it appears to be anastomosis.
3. Nyctemera Hiibn.
Nyctemera Hiibn.. Verz.. 178 (1823) ; type, hwticinia Cram. Lepto
soma Boisd.. Voy. Asti. 5. 197 (1832) ; type, annulata Boisd.
Head smooth. Tongue developed. Antennae in <$ bipectinate to apex.
Palpi moderately long, subascending, with appressed scales, terminal joint
moderate, cylindrical. Forewings with 7 and 8 out of 9, 10 connected
with 9 by bar. Hindwings with 6 and 7 sometimes stalked, 8 closely
appressed to cell towards base, connected by bars at each end of appressed
portion.
An Indo-Malayan genus of some extent, spreading into Australia and
Africa : the New Zealand species is endemic, but approaches Australian
forms. .
5. X. annulata Boisd.. Voy. Astr., 5, 197. pi. 5, 9 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W.. 1886.' 760: Huds.. N.Z. Moths, 2, pi. 4, 1. 2:
doubledayi Walk.. Cat., 2, 392.
North. South, and Stewart Islands. Larva on Seneeio.
3. CARADR1NIDAE.
Vein 8 of hindwings shortly anastomosing with cell near base, thence
diverging ; 5 obsolete or imperfect, rising from middle of transverse vein.
An extremely large family, of which, as explained above, only one sub-
family is adequately represented in New Zealand.
Subfam. 1. Aorotides.
Eyes glabrous ; tibiae spinose.
4. Heliothis Ochs.
Heliothis Ochs., Schmett. Eur., 4, 91 (1816) ; type, dipsacea Linn.
Chloridea Westw.. Jard. Nat. Libr., 32, 198 (1841); type, virescens
Fab.
Face with rounded prominence. Antennae in <$ ciliated. Thorax and
abdomen without crest. Interior tibiae with apical inner and outer claws.
A rather small cosmopolitan genus, of which some species range very
widely ; one of these has reached New Zealand. There are about a dozen
other generic synonyms, which it seems needless to quote ; some are
■explained in the preliminary remarks.
6. H. armigera Hiibn.. Samml. Eur. Schmett., 370 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z.
Inst., 19, 34 : Huds.. N.Z. Moths, 32, pi. 5, 40, 41 : conferta Walk.,
Cat., 9. 690.
North and South Islands ; a cosmopolitan insect. Lurva poly-
phagous, on seeds and flowers.,
94 Transactions.
5. Euxoa Hiibn.
Euxoa Hiibn.. Verz., 209 (1823) ; type, decora Hiibn.
Face with small truncate-conical prominence with raised rim. Antennae
in (J bipectinated, towards apex simple. Thorax with rather spreading
anterior and posterior crests. Abdomen without crests.
An extensive cosmopolitan genus. There are about twenty generic
synonyms.
7. E. radians Guen., Noct., 1, 261 ; munda Walk., Cat., 10, 348 ; basi-
notata, ib., 15, 1686 ; turbulenta, ib., 32, 703 ; injuncta, ib., 32, 703 ;
scapularis Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 110, 13.
Dunedin. Common in Australia ; also from Friendly Islands and
Norfolk Island.
8. E. admirationis Guen., Ent. Mo. Mag., 5, 38 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 31,
pi. 5, 37 : sericea Butl., Cist. Ent., 2, 490 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 31,
pi. 5, 38 : inconspicua Butl., Cist. Ent., 2, 545.
Christchurch district.
9. E. ceropachoides Guen., Ent. Mo. Mag., 5, 39 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths,
32, pi. 6, 1.
Rakaia.
6. Agrotis Ochs.
Agrotis Ochs., Schmett. Eur., 4, 66 (1816) ; type, ypsilon Rott.
Lycophotia Hiibn., Verz., 215 (1827) ; type, singula Thunb.
Face without prominence. Antennae in $ bipectinated, towards apex
simple. Thorax with anterior and posterior crests. Abdomen without
crests. Anterior tibiae short, thickened, not longer than first joint of
tarsi. A rather limited but generally distributed genus. Hampson
separated Agrotis and Lycophotia by "the " rather flattened " abdomen
of the former, but it is quite impossible to distinguish them practically
by this indefinite test.
10. A. ypsilon Rott,, Naturf., 9, 141 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 32 ;
Huds., N.Z. Moths, 30, pi. 5, 35, 36: suffusa Hiibn., Samml. Eur.
Schmett., 134.
North and South Islands ; a cosmopolitan insect. Larva poly-
phagous.
11. A. innominata Huds., N.Z. Moths, 31, pi. 5, 39.
Wellington. Christchurch.
7. Graphiphora Ochs.
Graphiphora Ochs., Schmett. Eur., 4, 68 (1816) ; type, obscura
Brahm.
Face without prominence. Antennae in S ciliated. Thorax with an-
terior and posterior crests. Abdomen without crests. Anterior tibiae
moderate, longer than first joint of tarsi.
A large genus, of universal distribution. Hampson includes this genus
in Agrotis, but I think the separation is natural and practicable. This
is the group to which the name of Noctua was formerly applied, but it has
now been generally discarded. There are numerous generic synonyms.
Mbtrick.— Revision of the New Zealand Caradrinina. 95
12. G. eompta Walk., Cat., 10, 404: immunis, ib., 10, 430: Huds., N.Z.
Moths, 7, pi. 5, 29 : quad-rota Walk., Cat., 11, 745 : innocua, *&.,
15, 1710 : reciproca, ib., 32, 672 : breviuscula, ib., 33, 716 : com-
municata, ib., 33. 716 : acetina Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 109, 6.
North and South Islands. Common in Australia, and reaching
New Hebrides. Larva on Urtica.
Sub f am. 2. Poliades.
Eyes glabrous, but overhung by long cilia from margins : tibiae not
spinose.
8. Austramathes Hamps.
Austramathes Hamps., Cat., 6, 492 (1906) ; type, purpurea Butl.
Face without prominence. Terminal joint of palpi rather long.
Antennae in <J ciliated. Thorax with divided anterior and spreading
posterior crests. Abdomen without crests. An endemic genus of some-
what doubtful affinity ; it is not very distinct, but the palpi are rather
characteristic.
13. A. purpurea Butl., Cist. Ent„ 2, 490 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 8, pi. 5, 32 :
ceramodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.. 19. 31.
Wellington. Dunedin.
9. Hypnotype Hamps.
Hypnotype Hamps., Cat., 6, 411 (1906) ; type, placens Walk.
Face without prominence. Antennae in <J ciliated. Thorax with
anterior angles ridged and projecting, and with anterior and posterior
crests. Abdomen without crests.
This genus is founded on a single South American species. I can only
refer the following species to it with considerable doubt, as I have not a
specimen for examination, and Hampson, unfortunately, had not seen
a specimen either, but his conjectural reference of it to Sympistis is, I
think, undoubtedly wrong.
14. H. pessota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.. 19, 29 ; Huds.. N.Z. Moths, 6,
pi. 5, 26.
Wellington, Christchurch district.
10. Homohadena Grote.
Homohadena Grote, Bull. Buff. [Soc. Nat. Sci., 1, 180 (1873) ; type
badistriqa Grote.
Face without prominence. Antennae in <$ ciliated. Thorax without
crests. Abdomen without crest.
A small American genus, in which the following species seems better
placed than in Sympistis, where Hampson refers it, attributing to it the
character of " eyes small and reniform," which I do not consider justified.
15. H. fortis Butl., Cist. Ent., 2, 549 ; iota Huds., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 35,
243, pi. 30, 3.
Wellington, Marlborough Province, Invercargill.
96 Transactions.
Subfam. 3. Melanchrides.
Eyes hairy ; tibiae not spinose.
11. Ichneutica Meyr.
Ichneutica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 13 (1887); type, ceraunias
Meyr.
Face without prominence. Antennae in rj strongly bipectinated to
apex. Thorax clothed with hair, without crests. Abdomen without crest.
An endemic genus, doubtless a local development of Leucania.
16. /. (Hone Huds., N.Z. Moths, 14, pi. 4, 27.
Mount Arthur ; 4,400 ft.
17. /. ceraunias Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 19. 13 : Huds.. N.Z. Moths. 14.
pi. 4, 25, 26."
Mount Arthur; 3,600ft,
12. Leucania Ochs.
Leucania Ochs., Schmett. Eur., 4, 81 (1816) ; type, fallens Linn.
Face without prominence. Antennae in £ bipectinated with apex
simple, or ciliated. Thorax clothed with hair, without crests. Abdomen
without crest.
A considerable genus, of universal distribution, as now restricted. I
include here nearly all the species of Hampson's Borolia.
18. L. Purdii Fer.. Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 15, 195; Huds., N.Z. Moths. 10.
pi. 4, 11.
Wellington, Dunedin.
19. L. acontistis Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 19, 9: Huds., N.Z. Moths. 11.
pi. 4, 14.
Castle Hill.
20. L. unica Walk., Cat., 9, 112 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 12, pi. 4, 17 : junci-
color Guen., Ent, Mo. Mag., 5, 2.
' Blenheim, Rakaia, Macetown.
21. L. toroneura Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc, Loud., 1901, 565; Hamps.. Cat.,
5, 591, pi. 96, 1.
Mount Cook.
22. L. lissoxyla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 43, 70.
Mount Arthur; 4,000ft.
23. L. phaula Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 19, 10; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 11.
pi. 4, 15 : dunedinensis Hamps., Cat., 5, 591, pi. 96, 2 : neurae
Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 37, 330, pi. 20, 5.
Christchurch, Dunedin, Invercargill. Larva on tussock-grass.
24. L. alopa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 19. 10: Huds., N.Z. Moths. 12.
pi. 4, 16. '
Lakes Coleridge and Gluyon.
25. L. blrnheimensis Fer., Trans. N.Z. Inst,. 15. 196 : Huds., N.Z. Moths.
13, pi. 4, 23.
Napier, Blenheim.
Metrics. — Revision of the New Zealand Caradrinina. 97
26. L. semivittata Walk., Cat,, 32, 628; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 13, pi. 4,
21, 22.
North and South Islands.
27. L. sulcana Fer., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 12, 267, pi. 9, 3 ; Huds... N.Z. Moths.
13, pi. 4, 19, 20.
Akaroa, Dunedin.
28. L. stulta Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst.. 37, 330. pi. 20. 1.
Invercargill district.
13. Aletia Hiibn.
Aletia Hiibn., Verz., 239 (1823) ; type, conigera Fab. Sideridis
Hiibn., Verz., 232 (1823) ; type, evidens Hiibn. Hyssia Guen..
Noct,, 1, 345 (1852) ; type, cavernosa Ev. Chabuata Walk.,
Cat,, 14, 1034 (1857) ; type, ampla Walk. Cirphis Walk., Cat.,
32, 622 (1865); type, costalis Walk. Alysia Guen., Ent. Mo.
Mag., 5, 3 (1868) ; type, nullijera Guen.
Face without prominence. Antennae in <$ ciliated, or bipectinated
with apex simple. Thorax clothed with hair or hair-scales, with anterior
and posterior spreading crests. Abdomen with small crest on basal seg-
ment.
A very large and cosmopolitan genus. Hampson includes micrastra in
Physetica, on the ground of the increased size of the spines of the anterior
tibiae ; the difference is, however, merely comparative, and, as there seems
to be no near relationship in other particulars, insistence on this particular
character produces an artificial and unnatural collocation.
29. A. micrastra Mevr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1897, 383; Huds., N.Z.
Moths, 12, pi.' 4, 10.
Wellington.
3D. A. Loreyi Dup., Lep. Fr., 7, 81, pi. 105, 7 ; Hamps., Cat,, 5, 492.
Kermadec Islands. Widely distributed in Europe, Asia, Africa,
and Australia.
31. A. unipuncta Haw., Lep. Brit., 174 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 13, pi. 4, 24 :
cxtranea Guen., Noct., 1, 77.
North and South Islands. A cosmopolitan species. Larva on
grasses.
32. A. nullijera Walk., Cat., 11, 742; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 9, pi. 4, 9:
specifica Guen., Ent, Mo. Mag., 5, 3.
Taupo, Wellington, Mount Arthur (4,000 ft,), Christchurch dis-
trict.
33. A. moderata W^alk., Cat., 32, 705 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 20, 45 :
sistens Guen., Ent, Mo. Mag., 5, 39 : mitis Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond., 1877, 383, pi. 42, 5 : griseipennis Huds., N.Z.. Moths, 9, pi. 4, 8.
North and South Islands.
34. A. griseipennis Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 109, 22; virescens Butl., Cist.
Ent. 2, 489.
Wellington, South Island.
35. A. temenaula Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 39, 107.
Rakaia, Dunedin.
36. A. pachyscia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 39, 107.
Mount Arthur (4,700 ft,), Lake Wakatipu.
4 — Tran.c.
"98 Transactions.
37. A. falsidica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 70.
Mount Arthur, Lake Wakatipu.
38. A. sminthistis Hamps., Cat., 5, 280, pi. 86, 17.
Locality unrecorded.
39. A. inconstans Butl., Cist. Ent., 2, 545.
Wellington, Marlborough.
40. A. cucullina Guen., Ent. Mo. Mag., 5, 40 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 27,
pi. 5, 23.
Christchurch district, Mount Arthur (3,600 ft.).
14. Physetica Meyr.
Physetica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 5 (1887) ; type, caerulea
Guen.
Face without prominence. Antennae in $ ciliated. Palpi in $ with
terminal joint greatly dilated, with orifice on outer side (instead of apex).
Thorax clothed with hair, without crests. Abdomen with small crest on
basal segment.
Probably an endemic development of Aletia.
41. P. caerulea Guen., Ent. Mo. Mag., 5, 38; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 8, pi. 4, 7.
Wellington, Blenheim, Rakaia.
15. Dipaustica n.g.
Face with strong horny bifurcate process. Antennae in <$ ciliated.
Thorax clothed with hair and hair-scales, with strong triangular divided
anterior crest. Abdomen with crest on basal segment. Anterior tarsi
with spines unusually small and slight.
A distinct endemic genus ; a development of Aletia.
42. D. epiastra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 58.
Makara. Larva in stems of Arundo conspicua.
16. Persectania Hamps.
Persectania Hamps., Cat., 5, 386 ; type, composita Guen. Graphania
Hamps., Cat., 5, 469 ; type, disjungens Walk. Tmetolophota
Hamps., Cat., 5, 470 ; type, propria Walk.
Face with slight rounded or subtruncate prominence with ridge below
it. Antennae in <$ ciliated, or bipectinated with apex simple. Thorax
clothed with hair and hair-scales, with anterior and posterior crests.
Abdomen with crest on basal segment.
Apparently a development of Melanchra. Hampson includes in
Graphania an African species, and in Tmetolophota a South American
one, which I have not seen.
43. P. disjungens Walk., Cat., 15, 1681 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 15, pi. 5, 43 :
nervata Guen., Ent. Mo. Mag., 5, 40.
Ashburton, Rakaia.
44. P. steropastis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 22 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 23,
pi. 5, 10, 11.
Napier, South Island.
Meyrick. — Revision of the Xew Zealand Caradrinina. 99
45. P. composite Guen., Noct., 2, 114 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 22, pi. 5, 8, 9 :
cwingii Westw., Proc. Ent. Soc, 2, 55, pi. 20, 1 : aversa Walk.,
Cat., 9, 113 : maori Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 109, 24 : peracuta Morr.,.
Bull. BufE. Soc. Nat. Sci., 2, 114 : dentigera Butl., Cist, Ent., 2, 542.
North and South Islands ; common also in Australia. Larva on
grasses. I see no reason to revive Westwood's forgotten name
in face of the established use, still less under Hampson's unrecog-
nizable amended form evingi.
46. P. arotis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 11 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 12,
pi. 4, 18 : aulacias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 11.
Wellington, South Island.
47. P. atristriga Walk., Cat,, 33, 756 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 10, pi. 4, 12 :
antipoda Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 109, 23.
North and South Islands.
48. P. propria Walk., Cat., 9, 111 ; Huds. N.Z. Moths, 11, pi. 4, 13.
Blenheim, Mount Arthur (3,800 ft.), Mount Hutt,
17. Erana Walk.
Erana Walk., Cat, 11, 605 (1857) ; type, graminosa Walk.
Face without prominence. Antennae in $ with scattered cilia. Thorax
clothed with scales, with anterior and posterior spreading crests. Abdomen
with strong dorsal crests towards base. Forewings with 10 not connected
with 9 to form areole, in S beneath with very long tuft of scent-producing
hairs from basal area. Hind wings in <$ with costal area broadly expanded.
An endemic development of Melanchra.
49. E. graminosa Walk., Cat., 11, 605 : Huds., N.Z. Moths, 28, pi. 5, 24,
25 : vigens Walk., 33, 743.
North and South Islands. Larva on Melieytus ramiflorus.
18. Melanchra Hiibn.
Melanchra Hiibn., Verz., 207 (1823) ; type, persicariae Linn. Mete-
rana Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.. 1877. 385 ; type, pictula
White-
Face without prominence. Antennae in 3 ciliated, or bipectinated
with apex simple. Thorax clothed with hair and scales, with anterior and
posterior crests. Abdomen with dorsal crests towards base.
A very large genus, of universal distribution, but chiefly in temperate
regions. Hampson calls this genus Polia (whereas this name has been
universally employed in a quite different sense, and is barred), but separates
all the New Zealand species except pictula and rhodopleura, together with
six from North America, as a widely remote genus Morrisonia, on the
alleged character that these latter have " the tegulae dorsally produced
into a ridge." I am quite unable to separate the two groups on this or
any other character, and think the division unnatural, the species of both
being very similar in all respects. The use of the name Mamestra for this
genus is not practicable ; it is founded on Guenee's use, but under a mis-
apprehension of it, as Guenee himself specified the type as furva Hiibn.,
which does not belong to this subfamily at all. There are a number of
generic synonyms, which I do not quote.
4*
100 Transactions.
50. M. pictula White, Tayl. New Zeal., pi. 1, 3 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 19,
pi. 4, 37.
Lake Coleridge.
51. M. rhodopleura Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst.. 19, 19: Huds., N.Z. Moths,
19, pi. 4, 38.
Auckland, Napier, Wellington. Hampson oddly unites this and
the preceding as sexes, which is certainly incorrect, as I have males
of both. They are also not only distinct and apparently constant
in colouring, but differ somewhat in the form of the spots, occur in
different Islands, and my type of pictula has the tegulae distinctly
ridged, and would therefore be placed by him in a different genus
from rhodopleura, in which there seems to be no ridge ; however,
on this last point I lay no stress myself.
52. M. exquisita Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 35, 246, pi. 32, 2.
Invercargill.
53. M. plena Walk., Cat., 33, 744; Huds.. N.Z. Moths, 17, pi. 4, 32:
sphagnea Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 109. 17 : viridis Butl., Cist. Ent.,
2, 547.
Wellington, South Island. Larva on grasses and low plants.
53a. M. pauca, Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 42, 544.
Wairarapa, Invercargill.
54. M. octans Huds., N.Z. Moths, 25, pi. 5, 1.
Invercargill.
55. M. grandiosa Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 35, 246. pi. 32, 1.
Invercargill.
56. M. decorata Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 37, 329, pi. 20, 2.
Invercargill.
57. M. maya Huds., N.Z. Moths, 17. pi. 4, 31.
Mount Arthur (3,500 ft,), Macetown.
58. M. xanthogramma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 44, 117.
Wellington.
59. M. insignis Walk., Cat,, 33, 724: Huds., N.Z. Moths. 16, pi. 4, 29, 30;
Hamps., Cat. 5, 368, pi. 88, 20 : turbida Walk., Cat., 33, 754 :
sTcelloni Butl., Cist, Ent,, 2, 547 : polychroa Meyr., Trans. N.Z.
Inst., 19, 16.
North and South Islands. Larva polyphagous on low plants.
60. M. mutans Walk., Cat,, 11, 602 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 18, pi. 4, 34-36 ;
Hamps., Cat,. 5, 369, pi. 38, 21 : lignifusca Walk., Cat., 11, 603:
spurcata, ib., 11, 631: vexata, ib., 33, 755: angusta Feld., Reis.
Nov., pi. 109, 18 : acceptrix, ib., pi. 109, 19 : debilis Butl., Proc.
Zool. Soc, Lond., 1877, 385, pi. 42, 6.
North and South Islands. Larva polyphagous on low plants.
61. M. bromias Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond.. 1902, 273 ; Hamps., Cat,,
5, 370, pi. 88, 22.
Chatham Islands.
62. M. ustistriga Walk., Cat., 11, 630; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 26, pi. 5, 20:
Hamps.^ Cat,, 5, 377, pi. 88, 29 : lignisecta Walk., Cat., 11, 631.
North and South Islands. Larva on Lonicera.
63. M. paracausta Mevr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 19. 15 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths.
15, pi. 4, 28.
Mount Arthur, Castle Hill, Invercargill.
Meyrick. — Revision of the New Zealand Caradrinina. 101
64. M. coekno Huds., N.Z. Moths. 26, pi. 4, 39.
Wellington.
65. M. diatmeta Huds., N.Z. Moths, 21, pi. 5, 5.
Wellington.
66. M. infensa Walk., Cat., 11, 748 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 23, pi. 5, 12 ;
Hamps., Cat., 5, 376, pi. 88, 27 : arachnids Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
19, 23.
Napier, Blenheim.
67. M. omoplaca Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 24 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths,
23, pi. 5, 13 ; Hamps., Cat., 5, 382. pi. 89. 2 : umbra Huds., Trans.
N.Z. Inst., 35, 243, pi. 30, 7-9.
Wellington, Lake Coleridge, Invercargill.
68. M. alcyone Huds., N.Z. Moths, 24, pi. 5, 14.
Wellington
69. M. rubescens Butl., Cist. Ent., 2, 489 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 25, pi. 5,
18 ; Hamps., Cat., 5, 376, pi. 88, 28.
Mount Arthur, Castle Hill, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu.
70. M. Ugnana Walk., Cat., 11, 758 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 26, pi. 5, 19 ;
Hamps., Cat,, 5, 383, pi. 89, 3.
Wellington, Blenheim, Mount Hutt.
71. M. stipata Walk., Cat., 33, 753 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 25, pi. 5, 17.
North and South Islands.
72. M. merope Huds.. N.Z. Moths, 19, pi. 5, 2.
Wellington.
73. M. omicron Huds., N.Z. Moths, 22, pi. 5, 42.
Wellington.
74. M. dotata Walk., Cat., 11, 522 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 24, pi. 5, 16 ;
Hamps., Cat., 380, pi. 88, 31.
Nelson.
75. M. asterope Huds., N.Z. Moths, 24, pi. 5, 15.
Mount Arthur (3,600 ft.), Lake Wakatipu.
76. M. tartarea Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc, Lond., 1877, 384, pi. 42, 2 ; Huds.,
N.Z. Moths, 21, pi. 5, 6 ; Hamps., Cat., 5, 381, pi. 89, 1.
Murimutu Plains, Christchureh, Invercargill.
77. M. agorastis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 18 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 18,
pi. 5, 30 ; Hamps., Cat,, 5, 371, pi. 88, 23.
Wellington, Akaroa, Lake Guyon.
78. M. vitiosa Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc Lond., 1877, 384, pi. 42, 3 : proteastis
Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 20, 45; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 20, pi. 4, 40.
Christchureh. Hampson, by confusion, attributes the larva of
the following species to this one, and misquotes the names of
Hudson's references.
79. M. ochthistis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 20 ; Hamps., Cat., 5, 380,
pi. 88, 32 : vitiosa Huds., N.Z. Moths, 20, pi. 4, 42.
Wellington, Christchureh, Dunedin. Larva on Melicope simplex.
80. M. morosa Butl., Cist. Ent., 2, 543 ; Hamps., Cat., 5, 384, pi. 89, 4 :
pelistis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 19, 20 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 19,
pi. 5, 3, 4.
Wellington, Paekakariki, Akaroa, Lake Coleridge.
102 Transactions.
81. M. levis Philp., Trans. N.Z. Inst.. 37, 330, pi. 20. 4.
Invercargill.
82. M. lithias Mevr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst,. 19. 17 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 17,
pi. 4, 33.
Castle Hill.
83. M. homoscia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 21 ; Huds.. N.Z. Moths.
21, pi. 5, 7 ; Hamps., Cat,, 5, 378, pi. 88, 30.
Wellington, Blenheim. Larva on Pomaderris ericifolia.
84. M. temperata Walk., Cat,, 15, 1648 ; Hamps., Cat., 5, 385, pi. 89, 6 :
inceptura Walk., Cat., 15. 1736 : deceptura, ib., 1737.
Locality unknown.
85. M. prionistis Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 27 ; Huds.. N.Z. Motha,
27, pi. 5, 21 ; Hamps., Cat,. 5, 384, pi. 89, 5.
Wellington, Rakaia.
86. M. phricias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 20, 46 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 27.
pi. 5, 22 ; Hamps., Cat,, 5, 385, pi. 89, 7.
Manawatu district, Blenheim, Christchurch, Lake Coleridge.
19. Dasygaster Guen.
Dasygaster Guen., Noct., 1, 201 (1852) ; type, hollandicu' Guen.
Face with slight rounded prominence with ridge below it. Antennae
in <$ ciliated. Thorax clothed with hair and hair-scales, with anterior
and posterior crests. Abdomen with dorsal crests towards base, and dense
lateral tufted fringes, especially in <$.
A small characteristically Australian genus ; the following species is
perhaps a recent immigrant.
87. D. hollandiae Guen., Noct., 1, 201 ; Hamps., Cat., 5, 476 : leucanioides
Guen., Noct,, 1, 202 : facilis Walk., Cat,, 11, 745.
Waipori. Common in south-east Australia and Tasmania.
Subfam. 4. Caradrinides.
Eyes glabrous, without marginal cilia ; tibiae not spinose,
20. Bityla Walk.
Bityla Walk., Cat., 33, 869 (1865) ; type, defigurata Walk.
Face without prominence. Antennae in <$ ciliated. Thorax clothed
with hair, without crests. Abdomen without crests.
Apparently endemic.
88. B. defigurata Walk., Cat,, 33, 756 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 29. pi. 5, 33 :
thoracica Walk., Cat., 33. 869.
North and South Islands.
89. B. sericea Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1877, 387, pi. 42, 12 ; Huds.,
N.Z. Moths, 29, pi. 5, 34.
Wellington, Christchurch, Lake Guyon.
90. B. pallida Huds., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 37, 355; Hamps., Cat., 7, 42,
pi. 109, 6.
Napier.
Mbyrick. — Revision of the New Zealand Caradrinina. 103
21. Ariathisa Walk.
Ariathisa Walk., Cat., 33, 747 (1865) ; type, excisa Herr-Sckaff.
Nitocris Guen.. Ent. Mo. Mag., 5, 4 (1868) : type, comma Walk.
Face without prominence. Antennae in $ ciliated. Thorax clothed
ehiefly with scales, with small posterior double crest. Abdomen without
crests.
A rather extensive characteristically Australian genus. The single New
Zealand species is apparently endemic, but extremely close to Australian
forms.
91. A. comma Walk., Cat., 9, 239 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 7, pi. 5, 27, 28;
implexa Walk., Cat., 10, 405 : plusiata, ib., 33, 742 : bicomma Guen.,
Ent. Mo. Mag., 5, 4.
North and South Islands.
22. Spodoptera Guen.
Spodoptera Guen., Noct., 1, 153 (1852) : type, mauritia Boisd.
Face without prominence. Antennae in S ciliated. Thorax clothed
chiefly with scales, with posterior spreading crest. Abdomen with dorsal
crest at base.
A small widely distributed genus, of which two species have a very
extensive range.
92. S. mauritia Boisd., Faun. Ent. Madag. Lep., 92, pi. 13, 9 ; Hamps.,
Cat., 8, 256 : margarita Hawth., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 29, 283 ; Huds.,
N.Z. Moths, 6, pi. 5, 31.
Wellington. Common throughout south Asia, Africa, Australia,
and Pacific islands. There are sixteen specific synonyms, which I
do not quote. Larva on rice, and perhaps other cereals.
23. Cosmodes Guen.
Cosmodes Guen., Noct., 2, 289 (1852) ; type, elegans Don.
Face without prominence. Antennae in <J ciliated. Thorax clothed
chiefly with scales, with anterior and posterior crests. Abdomen with
dorsal crests towards base, and large crest on third segment. Forewings
with scale-tooth at tornus, termen angulated on vein 3.
The single species occurs apparently naturally in both Australia and
New Zealand, but probably the former country is its home. It approaches
the Asiatic Canna.
93. C. elegans Don., Ins. New Holl., pi. 36, 5 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 33,
pi. 6, 2.
North Island, Christchurch. Common in eastern Australia.
4. PLUSIADAE.
Vein 8 of hindwings shortly anastomosing with cell near base, thence
diverging, 5 well developed.
Also an extremely large family, but more especially characteristic of
tropical regions.
Subfam. 1. Hypenides.
Hindwings with 5 nearly parallel to 4.
104 Transactions.
24. Hypenodes Guen.
Hypenodes Guen., Delt., 41 (1854) ; type, albistrigalis Haw.
Head with frontal tuft. Antennae in $ ciliated. Palpi very long,
porrected, second joint thickened with rough projecting scales, terminal
rather short or moderately long, cylindrical. Thorax with appressed
scales. Abdomen with small crest on basal segment. Tibiae smooth-
scaled. Forewings with 7 separate, 9 and 10 out of 8.
94. H. costistrigalis Steph., 111. Brit. Ent., 4, 20 ; exsularis Meyr., Trans.
N.Z. Inst., 20, 46.
Taranaki, Kermadec Islands. Widely distributed in Europe, Asia.
and Australia.
95. H. anticlina Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901, 566; ootids Huds..
N.Z. Moths, 37, pi. 6, 7.
Wellington.
Subfam. 2. Catocalides.
Hindwings with 3, 4, 5 approximated at base ; middle and sometimes
posterior tibiae spinose.
25. Ophiusa Ochs.
Ophiusa Ochs., Schmett. Eur., 4, 93 (1816) ; type, algira Linn.
Achaea Hiibn., Verz., 269 (1823) ; type, melicerte Drury. Gram-
modes Guen., Noct., 3, 275 (1852) ; type, geometrica Fab.
Antennae in <$ ciliated. Palpi moderately long, ascending, second
joint thickened with dense appressed scales, terminal joint moderate, some-
what pointed. Thorax clothed with scales and hair, without crest. Abdo-
men without crest.
An extensive genus, of general distribution, but principally tropical.
96. O. melicerte Drury, 111. Exot. Ins., 1, 46, pi. 23, 1 ; traversii Fer..
Trans. N.Z. Inst., 9, 457, pi. 17.
Wellington ; a casual immigrant. Widely distributed in Asia,
Africa, and Australia.
97. 0. pulcherrima Luc, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1892, 258 ; Huds., Trans.
N.Z. Inst., 37, 355, pi. 22, 4.
Wellington, once ; probably an accidental introduction. Occurs
in eastern Australia.
Subfam. 3. Plusiades.
Hindwings with 3, 4, 5 approximated at base ; tibiae not spinose.
26. Plusia Ochs.
Plusia Ochs., Schmett. Eur., 4, 89 (1816) ; type, gamma Linn.
Antennae in <$ ciliated. Palpi rather long, curved, ascending, second
joint rough-scaled, terminal moderate or short, more or less rough-scaled
in front, somewhat pointed. Thorax with large central or posterior crest.
Abdomen with one or more crests. Tibiae rough-scaled.
An extensive nearly cosmopolitan genus ; the two New Zealand species
are immigrants.
98. P. chalcites Esp., Schmett,, 447, pi. 141, 3 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 35,
pi. 6, 3 : eriosoma Doubl., Dieff. N.Z., 2, 285 : verticillata Guen.,
Noct., 2, 344 : rogationis, ib., 344.
North Island, Blenheim, Nelson. A cosmopolitan insect. Larva
on various plants.
Mevrick. — Revision of the New Zealand Caradrinina. 105
99. P. oxygramma Hubn., Zutr., 37, f. 769, 770 ; transfixa Walk., Cat., 12,
884 ; subchalybaea, ib., 33, 833.
Thames River. Widely distributed in Asia, Australia, and Pacific
islands. . ,
27. Ophideres Boisd.
Ophideres Boisd., Faun. Ent. Madag. Lep., 99 (1833) ; type, fullonica
Linn.
Antennae in <J ciliated. Palpi long, ascending, second joint thickened
with dense appressed scales, terminal joint moderately long, slender, some-
what thickened towards apex, obtuse. Thorax clothed with hair-scales
rather expanded posteriorly. Abdomen without crests.
A rather small tropical genus, of which some species have a wide range.
100. 0. fullonica Linn., Syst. Nat., 1, 812 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 19, 37.
Christchurch, one doubtful specimen. Widely distributed in Asia,
Africa, Australia, and Pacific islands.
28. Dasypodia Guen.
Dasypodia, Guen. Noct., 3, 174 (1852) ; type, selenophora Guen.
Antennae in <$ ciliated. Palpi long, ascending, second joint thickened
with dense scales, terminal joint moderately long, slender, somewhat
thickened towards apex, obtuse. Thorax clothed with long hairs, with-
out crest. Abdomen without crests. Posterior tibiae densely hairy.
An Australian genus ; probably of only one species.
101. D. selenophora Guen., Noct., 3, 175 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 35, pi. 6, 4.
North Island, Nelson, Christchurch. Common in south-east Aus-
tralia. Larva on Acacia (?).
29. Rhapsa Walk.
Rhapsa Walk., Cat., 1149 (1865) ; type, scotosialis Walk.
Antennae in <J bipectinated, towards apex simple. Palpi very long,,
obliquely ascending, clothed with rough scales throughout, second joint
above in <$ with tuft of long projecting scales above towards apex,
terminal joint moderate. Thorax clothed with scales, without crest.
Abdomen without crest. Posterior tibiae with appressed scales. Fore-
wings in (J beneath with large broad costal fold on anterior half.
A closely allied species occurs in south-east Australia, so similar that
it might be thought identical, but with the antennae of c? furnished with
long bristles instead of pectinations, vein 8 of hindwings anastomosing
with cell to beyond middle ; the characteristic palpi and costal fold of
the forewings are similar in both species.
102. R. scotosialis Walk., Cat., 34, 1150 ; Huds., N.Z. Moths, 36, pi. 6, 5, 6 :
lilacina Butl, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1877, 388, pi. 42, 11.
North and South Islands. Larva on Piper excelsum.
In the following indices the numbers refer to those attached to the
genera and species in consecutive order. Names italicised are synonyms.
Index of Genera.
Achaea Hubn.
. 25
Bityla Walk.
. 20
Agrotis Ochs.
. 6
Chabuata Walk.
. 13
Aletia Hubn.
. 13
Chloridea Westw.
. 4
Alysia Guen.
. 13
Cirphis Walk.
. 13
Ariathisa Walk.
. 21
Cosmodes Guen.
. 23
Austramathes Hamps.
. 8
Dasygaster Guen.
. 19
106
Transactions.
Dasypodia Guen.
Deiopeia Steph.
Dipaustica n.g.
Erana Walk.
Euxoa Hiibn.
Grammodes Guen.
Graphania Hamps.
Grapkipkora Ochs.
Heliothis Ochs.
Homohadena Grote
Hypenodes Guen.
Hypnotype Hamps.
Hyssia Guen.
Ichneutica Meyr.
Leptosoma Boisd.
Leucania Ochs.
acceptrix Feld.
aceiina Feld.
acontistis Meyr.
admirationis Guen.
agorastis Meyr.
alcyone Huds.
alopa Meyr.
angusta Feld.
annulata Boisd.
anticlina Meyr.
antipoda Feld. '
arachnias Meyr.
armigera Hiibn.
arotis Meyr.
asterope Huds.
atristriga Walk,
aulacias Meyr.
aversa Walk.
basinotata Walk.
bicomma Guen.
blenheimensis Fer.
breviuscula Walk,
bromias Meyr.
eaerulea Guen.
ceramodes Meyr.
ceraunias Meyr.
eeropachoides Guen.
chalcites Esp.
coeleno Huds.
comma Walk,
comtnunicata Walk,
eomposita Guen.
eompta Walk,
conferta Walk.
eostistri<:alis SU'ph.
Index of Genera — continued.
Lycophotia Hiibn.
15
17
5
25
16
6
4
10
24
9
13
11
3
12
Melanchra Hiibn
Metacrias Meyr.
Meter ana Butl.
Nitocris Guen.
Nyctemera Hiibn.
Ophideres Boisd.
Ophiusa Ochs.
Persectania Hamps.
Pliysetica Meyr.
Plusia Ochs.
Rkapsa Walk.
Sideridis Hiibn.
Spodoptera Guen.
Tmetolophota Hamps
Utetheisa Hiibn.
Index of Species.
60 i cucullina Guen.
12 debilis Butl.
19 deceptura Walk.
8 decorata Philp.
11 defigurata Walk.
68 dentigera Butl.
24 diatmeta Huds.
60 dione Huds.
5 disjungens Walk.
95 dotata Walk.
47 doubledayi Walk. ;
66 dunedinensis Hamps
6 elegans Don.
46 epiastra Meyr.
75 | ericlirysa Meyr.
47 eriosoma Doubl.
46 ewingii Westw.
45 exquisita Philp.
1 exsularis Meyr.
91 extranea Guen.
25 | facilis Walk.
12 i falsidica Meyr.
61 fortis Butl. . .
41 fullonica Linn.
13 graminbsa Walk.
17 grandiosa Philp.
9 griseipennis Feld.
98 ] hollandiae Guen.
64 homoscia Meyr.
91 huttonii Butl.
12 immunis Walk.
45 implexa Walk.
12 inceptura Walk.
6 inconspicua Butl.
94 inconstans Butl.
Meyrick. — Revision of the Xen> Zealand Caradrinina.
107
Index of Species- — continued.
infensa Walk.
injuncta Walk.
innocua Walk,
innominata Hud*.
insignis Walk,
iota Huds. . .
junicolor Guen.
leueanioides Guen.
levis Philp.
lignana Walk,
lignifusca Walk.
liqnisecta Walk.
lilacina Butl.
lissoxyla Meyr.
lithias Meyr.
loreyi Hup.
maori Feld.
margarita Hawth.
mauritia Boisd.
maya Huds.
melicerte Drury
merope Huds.
micrastra Meyr.
mitis Butl. . .
moderata Walk.
morosa Butl.
munda Walk,
mutans Walk,
nervata Guen.
neurae Philp.
nullifera Walk.
ochthistis Meyr.
octans Huds.
ociias Huds.
omicron Huds.
omoplaca Meyr.
oxygramma Hiibn.
pachyscia Meyr.
pallida Huds.
paracausta Meyr.
pauca Philp.
pelistis Meyr.
peracuta Morr.
pessota Meyr.
phaula Meyr.
phricias Meyr.
pictula White
plena Walk,
plusiata Walk.
polychroa Meyr.
prionistis Meyr.
propria Walk.
66
proteastis Meyr.
. 78
7
pulchella Linn.
. 4
12
pulcherrima Luc.
. 97
11
purdii Fer.
. 18
59
purpurea Butl.
. 13
15
quadrata Walk.
. 12
20
radians Guen.
. 7
87
reciproca Walk.
. 12
81
rhodopleura Meyr. . .
. 51
70
rogationis Guen.
. 98
60
rubescens Butl.
. 69
62
scapularis Feld.
7
102
scotosialis Walk.
. 102
22
selenophora Guen.
. 101
82
semivittata Walk.
. 26
30
sericea Butl.
. 8
45
sericea Butl.
. 89
92
sistens Guen.
. 33
92
skelloni Butl.
. 59
57
smintkistis Hamps. . .
. 38
96
specifica Guen.
. 32
72
sphagnea Feld.
. 53
29
spurcata Walk.
. 60
33
steropastis Meyr.
. 44
33
stipata Walk.
. 71
80
strategica Huds.
. 3
7
stulta Philp.
. 28
60
subchalybaea Walk. . .
. 99
43
suffusa Hiibn.
. 10
23
sulcana Fer.
. 27
32
tartarea Butl.
. 76
79
temenaula Meyr.
. 35
54
temperata Walk.
. 84
95
thoracica Walk.
. 88
73
toroneura Meyr.
. 21
67
trans fixa Walk.
. . 99
99
traversii Fer.
. . 96
36
turbida Walk.
. . 59
90
turbulenta Walk.
7
63
umbra Huds.
. . 67
53a
unica Walk.
. . 20
80
unipuncta Haw.
. . 31
45
ustistriga Walk.
. 62
14
verticillata Guen.
. 98
23
vexata Walk.
. . 60
86
vigens Walk.
. . 49
50
virescens Butl.
. 34
53
viridis Butl.
. 53
91
vitiosa Butl.
. . 78
59
vitiosa Huds.
. . 79
85
xantkogramma Meyr.
. 58
48
ypsilon Rott.
to
108 Transactions.
Art. VII. — On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand.;
Bv G. B. Longstaff. M.A., M.D., F.E.S.
Communicated by George Howes, F.E.S.
[Read before the Ot.ago Institute, 6th June, 1911. \
During the early part of 191<> it was my good fortune to spend eight weeks
in New Zealand, during which I visited many places in both Islands. Natu-
rally enough, my attention was somewhat distracted from entomology by
the other attractions of the country, but in spite of these, and in spite of
the shortness of the time at my disposal, I was, largely owing to the kindness
of Mr. Augustus Hamilton. Mr. G. W. Howes, and Mr. G. V. Hudson, able
to obtain some slight knowledge of its insect fauna.
Since returning to England many hours have been spent in the British
Museum naming my captures. Moreover, I have had the opportunity of
examining large consignments of New Zealand Lepidoptera recently received
from Messrs. Hamilton and Howes. In addition, I have had the invaluable
assistance of Sir George F. Hampson, Bart., and Mr. L. B. Prout, in the
settlement of knotty points.
Mr. Howes suggested that I might give some of the fruits of my labours
to my brother entomologists in New Zealand. Obviously, it would not be
possible to place at their disposal every determination of a specimen, but
perhaps I may save them some of the trouble that I had to go through
myself in seeking out the comparatively small number of New Zealand
moths in the serried ranks of cabinets at South Kensington.
All concerned in New Zealand entomology owe a great debt of gratitude
to Mr. Hudson for his " New Zealand Moths and Butterflies, " which was
published in 1898. The writer of a pioneer work of that description always
labours under great difficulties — difficulties which must have been in his
case greatly increased by his distance from the vast collections and rich
libraries of Europe.
This paper appears to be a criticism of Mr. Hudson's book, and so, indeed,
it is ; but it is a friendly criticism. His book has been most useful to me,
alike in New Zealand and in England ; and, in spite of imperfections, many
of them probably unavoidable, no criticism can destroy the value of the life-
histories and notes of habits and like matters, which find no place in such
works as Sir George Hampson's great catalogue. All, I think, must join in
hoping that some day Mr. Hudson may see his way to a second edition.
Here I would put in a word of encouragement to those who, like myself,
are not systematists, and are, naturally enough, much put out by the changes
of nomenclature that are nowadays so frequent. The value of a generic
name is comparatively small, since genera correspond to the views of natu-
ralists rather than to the facts of nature, and with increasing knowledge
the views of naturalists change rapidly. Some divergences of opinion are
due to the recognition, or otherwise, of the genera founded by older authors,
which may, or may not, comply with our rules of nomenclature. Sometimes
it is discovered that the author's type of the genus was a species now recog-
nized as very different in structure from the others included with it. Some-
times a familiar old name is dropped because the type species is clearly
congeneric with some earlier-described species. Many changes which seem
from a New Zealand or an English point of view to be meaningless are clearly
Longstaff. — Nomenclature of tfte Lepidoptera of N.Z. 109
comprehensible when a large fauna is reviewed. In short, generic names
have changed, and, troublesome though it be, probably will change again.
With species, however, the case is quite different. They correspond,
or should correspond, with natural facts. There will probably always be
both the "splitter" and the "lumper." Nevertheless, while it is com-
paratively unimportant what generic name you use, it is most important,
so far as possible, that all should agree as to the specific name. It is, for
example, most important that you should all mean the same thing by vitiosa
Butl., but it matters comparatively little whether you include it in Me-
lanchra or Morrisonia.
It was almost inevitable that Mr. Hudson should have adopted Mr.
Meyrickfs system of classification and somewhat revolutionary nomen-
clature. Sir George Hampson's system differs from Mr. Meyrick's, though
the difference is not perhaps so great as appears at first sight. It is well
that I should state quite plainly that I am in nowise competent to judge
between the two systems, and make no claim to do so. My design in this
paper is a much more humble one, being merely to help New Zealand ento-
mologists to find out by what names their moths and butterflies are known
in the latest English systematic work.
A few remarks as to the formidable " Catalogue of the Lepidoptera-
Phalaenae in the British Museum" may possibly be of interest to the mem-
bers of the New Zealand Institute. The first volume was issued in 1898, the
ninth, completing the Noctuidae Trifinae, in 1910. In these ponderous
tomes, each accompanied by a fasciculus of coloured plates, illustrating
species not previously figured satisfactorily, Sir George Hampson has dealt
with close upon ten thousand species of moths. Vol. 3 deals with four
New Zealand insects, vol. 4 with eight, vol. 6 with four, vol. 7 with three,
vol. 8 with two. Three of the volumes (1, 2, and 9) contain no New Zea-
land species ; but it is fortunate that no less than forty-six species, all
in the subfamily Hadenidae, are described in vol. 5.*
Since Sir George's monumental work is likely to be the standard authoritv
for many years to come— at any rate, for English-speaking entomologists—
I have adopted his arrangement of the species in preference to that of Mr.
Hudson, or that of the " Hand-list of New Zealand Lepidoptera^
On the left-hand side will be seen the name of the species as it stands
in Mr. Hudson's book, or in the original paper in which it was described.
The page, plate, and figure follow. The mark If signifies that there is no
illustration of the species.
On the right-hand side are given : —
(1.) The number borne by the species in the catalogue. An as-
terisk (*) indicates that at the time of publication there was
no specimen in the British Museum. In the case of the species
recognized by the author since the publication of the volume
the interpolated number is given in parentheses ( ).
(2.) The name in the catalogue or in the British Museum collection.
(3.) The number, in parentheses ( ), of specimens in the collection
in November, 1910. This in most cases is only given when
the number is under six. When the mark $ is added, the
cJ is unknown to Sir George, and there is therefore some
doubt as to the section of the genus in which the species should
be placed.
*Vol. 5 is issued at 15s.; the accompanying plates also cost 15s.: either ma)' be
had separately.
110
Transactions.
(4.) The reference to volume, page, plate, and figure in the catalogue.
'' Fig." means that there is a woodcut in the text ; the mark If.
that there is no illustration of the species. When the insect
has been recognized since publication, any obsolete reference to it
is placed in square brackets [ ].
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. = "Annals and Magazine of Natural History."
Hmpsn. = " Catalogue of the Lepidoptera-Phalaenae in the British Museum."
Huds. = " New Zealand Moths and Butterflies," 1898.
Subantarc. is. N.Z. = " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand."
Trans. N.Z. Inst. = " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."
Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. = " Transactions of the Entomological Society
of London."
Wellington list = " Hand-list of New Zealand Lepidoptera, Dominion
Museum, Wellington. 1909."
Metacrias huttoni Butl., Huds. p. 5. iv. 6
Metacrias strategica Huds., Huds. p. 4,*
iv, 4
Metacrias erichrysa Meyr., Huds. p. 4,*
iv, 5
Utetheisa pulchella Linn., Huds. p. 3,
iv, 3
Nyctemera annulate Boisd., Huds. p. 2,
iv, 1, 2
Heliothis armigera Hiibn., Huds. p. 32.
v, 40, 41
Euxoa radians Guen. ^f
Agrotis admirationis Guen., Huds. p. 31, \
v, 37
Agrotis sericea Butl., Huds. p. 31, v, 38. . )
Agrotis ceropachoides Guen., Huds. p. 32,
vi, 1
Agrotis ypsilon Rott., Huds. p. 30, v,
35, 36
Urthosia immunis Walk., Huds. p. 7, v, 29
Agrotis innominata Huds., Huds. p. 31.
v, 39
Ectopatria aspera. Walk., Wellington list
Erana graminosa Walk.. Huds. p. 29, v,
24, 25
Melanchra rhodopleura Meyr., Huds. p. 19,
iv, 38
Melanchra pictula Buti. et Huds., nee
White, Huds. p. 19, iv, 37
Levcania griseipennis Feld., Huds. p. 9;
but iv, 8, would appear to represent
L. moderata
2063. Metacrias huttoni Butl. (5), vol. 3,
p. 468 ; tig.
2064. Metacrias strategica Huds. (3),
vol. 3, p. 468. %.
2065. Metacrias erichrysa Meyr. (1),
vol. 3, p. 469. «T. '
2088. Utetheisa pulchella Linn., vol. 3,
p. 483 ; tig.
— ■ Deilemera annulata Boisd. t
56. [Chloridea armigera] Hiibn., now C.
obsoleta Fab., vol. 4, p. 45 ; fig.
285. Euxoa radians Guen. (1, from N.Z.),
vol. 4, p. 164, lx, 7.
300. Euxoa admirationis Guen., vol. 4,
p. 173 ; syn. sericea Butl. • .
* 301. Euxoa ceropachoides Guen. (0),
vol. 4, p. 174, Ixi, 7.
646. Agrotis ypsilon Rott., vol. 4, p. 368 ;
702. Agrotis compta Walk., vol. 4, p. 409,
Ixx, IS.
895. Lycophotia innominata Huds. (1),
vol. 4, p. 515 ; fig.
1123. Ectopatria aspera Walk. (3 N.Z.),
vol. 4, p. 654, lxxvii, 27.
1128. Erana graminosa Walk., vol. 5,
p. 8 ; fig.
1374. [Polia pictula White] (3), vol. 5,
p. 174. % Miselia pictula White. J
(1374a.) Miselia meyricci Hmpsn. ined.%
(2). %
1526. Hyssia griseipennis Feld., vol. .>,
p. 278. %
-j- This is placed by Hampson in the Hypsidae, but it is taken here for convenience.
Nyctemera is now restricted to certain African moths formerly called Otroeda, now placed
in the Lymuntriidae.
% Hampson has recently given the generic name Miselia Tr. priority over Polia Tr.
With the imperfect material at his disposal when writing his catalogue he considered the
North and South Island forms sexes of White's species. The type in the national col-
lection is the same insect as Meyriek's rlwdopleura, so that name sinks. The description
in the catalogue requires correction owing to the confusion of the two species. See
Ann. Mag. Nat, Hist, (8), viii, p. 421 (1911).
Longstaff. — Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of N.Z.
Ill
Hyssia inconetans Butl., Huds. p. 9,
included under L. griseipennis
Leucania temenaula Meyr., Trans. N.Z.
Inst. 1907, vol. 39, p. 106
Mdanchra cucullina Guen.. Huds. p. 27,
v, 23
Leucania pachyscia Meyr., Trans. N.Z.
Inst, 1907," vol. 39, p. 106.
Leucania moderata Walk., Huds. p. 9,
? iv, 8
Hyssia sminthistis Hmpsn., Wellington
list
Leucania nullifera Walk., Huds. p. 9,
iv, 9
Melanchra plena Walk.. Huds. p. 17.
iv. 32
Melanchra insignia Walk., Huds. p. 16,
iv, 29, 30
Melanchra mutans Walk., Huds. p. 18,
iv, 34, 35, 36
Melanchra caeleno Huds., Huds. p. 26,
iv, 39.
Melanchra beata Howes, Trans. N.Z. Inst.
1906, vol. 38, p. 511, xliv, 2
Melanchra levis Pkilpott, Trans. N.Z.
Inst, 1905, vol. 37, p. 329, xx, 4
Melanchra paracausta Mevr., Huds. p. 15,
iv, 28. 28a
Melanchra mai/a Huds., Huds. p. 17,
iv, 31
Melanchra bromias Mevr., Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lond. 1902, p.' 273
Mdanchra agorastis Meyr., Huds. p. 18,
v, 30
Melanchra proteastis Meyr., Huds. p. 20,
iv, 40
Melanchra infensa Walk., Huds. p. 23,
v, 12
Melanchra rubescens Butl., Huds. p. 25,
v, 18
Melanchra ustistriga Walk., Huds. p. 26,
v, 20, 20a
Mdanchra lithias Meyr., Huds. p. 17,
iv, 33
Mdanchra homoscia Meyr., Huds. p. 21,
v, 7
Melanchra stipata Walk., Huds. p. 25,
v, 17
Melanchra ale/one Huds., Huds. p. 24,
v, 14
Leucania alopa Meyr., Huds. p. 12, iv,
16
Mdanchra merope Huds., Huds. p. 19,
v, 2
1527. Hyssia inconstans Butl. (3), vol. 5,
p. 279, lxxxv, 23.
(1527a.) Hyssia temenaula '.Meyr. (1). ^f.
1528. Hyssia cucullina Guen. (4), vol. 5,
p. 279, lxxx, 27.
(1528a.) Hyssia pachysia Meyr. (0). %
1529. Hyssia moderata Walk., vol. 5,
p. 280 ; fig.
1530. Hyssia sminthistis Hmpsn. (1),
vol. 5, p. 280, lxxxvi, 17.
1531. Hyssia nullifera Walk. (3), vol. 5,
p. 281 ; fig.
1671. Morrisonia plena Walk., vol. 5,
p. 367. H
(1671a.) Morrisonia chlorodonta Hmpsn.
(1$). Tf. Description in Ann. Mas.
Nat. Hist. (8), viii, p. 423 (1911).
1672. Morrisonia insignia Walk., vol. 5,
p. 368, lxxxviii, 20.
1673. Morrisonia mutans Walk., vol. 5,
p. 369, lxxxviii, 21.
(1673a.) Morrisonia caeleno Huds. (1 9)
[vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.].
(1673b.) Morri sonia beata Howes (1). %
(1673c.) Morrisonia levis Philpott (2 9).
* 1674. Morrisonia paracausta Mevr. (6),
vol. 5, p. 370. %
(1674a.) M orrisonia oliveri Hmpsn. (19).
Tf. Description in Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (8), viii, p. 424 (1911).
(1674b.) Morrisonia maya Huds. (1)
[vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.].
(1674c.) Morrisonia chyserythra Hmpsn.
■ (!)• U. . '
* 1675. Morrisonia bromias Meyr. (0),
vol. 5, p. 370, lxxxviii, 22.
* 1676. Morrisonia agorastis Mevr. (0).
vol. 5, p. 371, lxxxviii, 23.
1682. Morrisonia vitiosa Butl. (3), vol. 5,
p. 375. If-
1683. Morrisonia infensa Walk. (1 9).
vol. 5, 376, lxxxviii, 27.f
1684. Morrisonia rubescens Butl., vol. 5,
p. 376, lxxxviii, 28.
1685. Morrisonia ustistriga Walk., vol. 5,
p. 377, lxxxviii, 29.
* 1686. Morrisonia lithias Mevr. (0),
vol. 5, p. 378. %
1687. Morrisonia homoscia Meyr. (5),
vol. 5, p. 378, lxxxviii. 23.
1688. Morrisonia stipata Walk., vol. 5,
p. 379 ; fig.
(1688a.) Morrisonia alcyone Huds. (1)
[vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.].
(1688b.) Morrisonia alopa Meyr. (3)
[vol. 5, p. 611, ignot.].
(1688c.) Morrisonia merope Huds. (1)
[vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.~\.\
f The male of this species is not known to Hampson, who thinks it likely to come
near Alopa.
% I found this in the British Museum as M. chlorograpta, so described by Hampson
in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1905, p. 452, but he has since sunk that name.
112
Transactions.
Melanchra diatmela Huds., Huds. p. 21,
v, 5
Melanchra dotata Walk., Huds. p. 24, v,
16
Melanchra vitiosa But!.. Huds. p. 20, iv,
42
Melanchra tartarea Butl., Huds. p. 21,
v, 6
Melanchra, omoplaca Meyr., Huds. p. 23,
v, 13
Melanchra decorata Philpott, Trans. N.Z.
Inst. 1905, vol. 37, p. 328, xx, 2
Melanchra lignana Walk., Huds. p. 26,
v, 19
Melanchra pelistis Meyr., Huds. p. 19,
v, 3, 4
Melanchra prionistis Meyr., Huds. p. 27,
v, 21
Leucania temperala Walk.. Huds. p. 9. ^j
Melanchra phricias Meyr., Huds. p. 27.
v, 22
Melanchra composite Guen., Huds. p. 22,
v, 8, 9
Leucania arotis Meyr., Huds. p. 12, iv, 18 !
Leucania innotata Howes, Trans. N.Z. )
Inst. 1908, vol. 40, p. 534 )
Melanchra steropastis Mevr., Huds. p. 23.
v, 10, 11
Leucania atristriga Walk., Huds. p. 10,
iv, 12
Physetica caerulea Guen., Huds, p. 8,
iv, 7
Leucania micrastra Meyr., Huds. p. 12,
iv, 10
Melanchra disjungens Walk., Huds. p. 15,
v, 43
Leucania propria Walk., Huds. p. 11,
iv, 13
Leucania unipuncta Haw., Huds. p. 13,
iv, 24
Ichneutica ceraunias Meyr., Huds. p. 14,
iv, 25, 26
Ichneutica dione Huds., Huds. p. 14, iv,
27
Leucania acontistis Meyr., Huds. p. 11.
iv, 14
Leucania toroneura Meyr., Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lond. 1901, p.' 565
Leucania, neurae Philpott, Trans. N.Z.
Inst. 1905, vol. 37, 330, xx, 5
Leucania unica Walk., Huds. p. 12, iv,
17
(1688D.) Morrisonia diatmela Huds. (1 $).
1689. Morrisonia dotata Walk. (1), vol. 5,
p. 380, lxxxviii, 31.
1690. Morrisonia ochthistis Meyr., vol. 5,
p. 380, lxxxviii, 32.
1691. Morrisonia tartarea Butl. (3), vol. 5,
p. 381, lxxxix, 1.
I<>92. Morrisonia omoplaca Mevr. (I1.
vol. 5, p. 382, lxxxix. 2.
(1693a.) Morrisonia. decorata Philpott
(4). If.
1694. Morrisonia lignana Walk., vol. 5.
p. 383, lxxxix, 3.
1695. Morrisonia morosa Butl., vol. 5,
p. 384, lxxxix, 4.
* 1696. Morrisonia prionistis Meyr. (6),
vol. 5, p. 384, lxxxix, 5.
1697. Morrisonia temperata Walk. (5).
vol. 5, p. 385, lxxxix, 6.
1698. Morrisonia phricias Meyr., vol. 5,
p. 385, lxxxix, 7.
(1698a.) Morrisonia longstaffi Howes,
Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1911, vol. 43,
p.l2S; fig.
(1698b.) Morrisonia sequens Howes, Trans.
N.Z. Inst, 1912, vol. 44, p. 204 ; fig.
1699. Persectania evingi Westw., vol. 5,
p. 386 ; fig.
1700. Persectania aulacias Meyr. (2),
vol. 5, p. 387, lxxxix, 8. Syn. arotis
Meyr. ; syn. obsoleta Howes ; syn.
innotata Howes.
1701. Persectania steropastis Meyr., vol. 5.
p. 388, lxxxix, 9.
1702. Persectania atristriga Walk., vol. 5.
p. 388 ; fig.
1786. Physetica caerulea Guen. (5), vol. 5,
p. 445 ; fig.
1787. Physetica vindimialis Guen. (1),
vol. 5, p. 445, xci, 2. Hampson
says, " Hab. (?) U.S.A., E. Florida
(Doubleday). 1 $ type. The type
has the abdomen of a male of some
other species stuck on to it, and will
probably prove to be from New
Zealand." Vol. 5, p. 446.
* 1788. Physetica micrastra. Meyr. (0),
vol. 5, p. 446, xci, 3.
1816. Graphania. disjungens Walk., vol. 5.
p. 469 ; fig.
1818. Tmetolophota propria Walk., vol. 5,
p. 471 ; fig.
1915. C'irphis unipuncta Haw., vol. 5,
p. 547. If.
* 2036. Leucania ceraunias Meyr. (3),
vol. 5, p. 590.
* 2037. Leucania dione Huds. (0), vol. 5,
p. 590. If.
(2037a.) Leucania acontistis Meyr. (3)
[vol. 5, p. 610, ignot.].
* 2038. Leucania toroneura Meyr. (1),
vol. 5, p. 591, xevi, 1. Syn. Leucania
neurae Pnilpott,
2039. Leucania unica Walk. (5), vol. 5,
p. 591 ; fig.
Loncstaff. — Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of N.Z.
Leucania dunedinensis Butl. ^f
113
2040. Leucania dunedinensis Hmpsn. (2),
vol. 5, p. 591 , xcvi, 2.
2041. Leucania semivittata Walk. (5),
vol. 5, p. 592 ; fig.
* 2042. Leucania blenheimensis Fereday
(0), vol. 5, p. 592, xcvi, 3.
(2042a.) Leucania purdiei Fereday (1)
[vol. 5, p. 611, ignot.].
2043. Leucania sulcana Feredav (5),
vol. 5, p. 593 ; fig.
* 2606. ? Sympistis pessota Meyr. (0),
vol. 6, p. 412, ignot.
* 2607. Sympistis iota Huds. (0), vol. 6,
p. 413, ignot.
2608. Sympistis fortis Butl. (2), vol. 6,
p. 413 ; fig.
2715. Austramathes purpurea Butl., vol. 6,
p. 492 ; fig.
2775. Bityla defigurata Walk., vol. 7,,
p. 41 ; fig.
2776. Bityla, sericea Butl. (1), vol. 7,
p. 41. %
2777. ? Bityla pallida Huds. (1), vol. 7,
p. 42, cix, 6.
3591. Cosmodes elegans Donov., vol. 8,
p. 17 ; fig.
4071. Ariathisa comma Walk., vol. 8,
p. 400 ; fig.
Plusia chalcites Esp.
Leucania semivittata Walk.. Huds. p. 13,
iv, 21, 22
Leucania blenheimensis Fereday, Huds.
p. 13, iv, 23
Leucania pnrdii Fereday, Huds. p. 10,
iv, 11
Leucania sulcana Fereday, Huds. p. 13,
iv, 19, 20
Miselia pessota Meyr., Huds. p. 6, v, 26
Miselia iota Huds., Trans. N.Z. Inst.
1903, vol. 35, p. 243, xxx, 3
Orthosia fortis Butl., Mevr. Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lond. 1901, p. 565
Xanthia purpurea Butl., Huds. p. 8, v, 32
Bityla defigurata Walk., Huds. p. 29, v, 33
Bityla sericea Butl, Huds. p. 29, v, 31
Orthosia pallida Huds., Trans. N.Z. lust.
1905, vol. 36, p. 355
Cosmodes elegans Donov., Huds. p. 33,
vi, 2
Orthosia comma Walk., Huds. p. 7, v, 27,
28
Plusia chalcites Esp., Huds. p. 35, vi, 3
Dasy podia selenophora Guen., Huds. p. 35,
vi, 4
Hypenodes exsularis Meyr., Huds. p. 34.
Hyperaucha octias Meyr., Huds. p. 37,
vi, 7
(Rhapsa octias, Huds.)|
Bhapsa scotosialis Walk,, Huds. p., 36,
vi, 5, 6
Sir George Hampson has not seen any of the following thirteen species,
the types of which would appear to be in New Zealand, consequently he is
unable to give any definite opinion about them. His difficulty is the same
as Mr. Hudson has often laboured under.
Agrotis veda Howes, Trans. N.Z. Inst.
1906, vol. 38, p. 511, xliv, 3
Orthosia margarita Hawthorne, Huds.
p. 6, v, 31
Melanchra exquisita Philpott, Trans.
N.Z. Inst. 1903, vol. 35, p. 246,
xxxii, 2
Melanchra omicron Huds., Huds. p. 22,
v, 42
Melanchra asterope Huds., Huds. p. 24,
v, 15
Melanchra grandiosa Philpott, Trans. N.Z.
Inst. 1903, vol. 35, p. 246, xxxii, 1
Melanchra mollis Howes, Trans. N.Z.
Inst. 1908, vol. 40, p. 533
Melanchra octans Huds., Huds. p. 25,
v, 1
Melanchra erebia Huds., Subantarc. Is.
N.Z. 1909, p. 68, ii, 15
Hypenodes exsularis Meyr. (0).
Hypenodes anticlina Meyr. (0).
Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? near Polia
pictula).
Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Hyssia, near
cucullina).
Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Morrisonia,
near dotata).
Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Morrisonia).
Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Xylomania,
near natalensis).
f Mr. Meyrick (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, p. 566) confesses to having led Mi.
Hudson astr.iv.
114 Transaction?.
Leucania pagaia Huds., Subantarc. Is.
N.Z., p. 67, ii, 9
Physetica hudsoni Howes. Trans. N.Z. Mr. Howes agrees with Mr. Hamilton in
Inst. 1906, vol. 38, p. T>10. xliv. 1 regarding this as a form of Physetica
caerulea Guen. ; but Sir George, who
has not seen the insect, thinks it may
possibly be a form of Hyssia grisei-
pennis.
Leucania stulta Philpott. Trans. N.Z.
Inst, 1905, vol. 37, 329, xx, 1
Leucania phavla Meyr., Huds. p. 11, Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 611 f? near L. blen-
iv, 15 heimensis).
At this place in Mr. Hudson's book the group that is usually called the
Geometridae follows. As Mr. L. B. Prout is still engaged in his great revision
of this group for Wytsman's " Genera Insectorum " (of which one part
has already appeared), it does not appear expedient to deal with them here
systematically., but at the same time it may be convenient to mention three
points : —
(1.) Xanthorhoe cineraria Dbld., Huds. p. 67, pi. viii, figs. 2, 2a. — Person-
ally I have no doubt that the larger form is semi-signata Walk. (pi. viii.
fig. 2a) and the smaller cineraria Dbld. (pi. viii, fig. 2), and that these
constitute distinct species.
(2.) Lythria euclidiata Guen... Huds. p. 68, pi. viii, fig. 35. — My speci-
mens referred by Mr. Howes to this species agree absolutely with Butler's
type of Arctesthes catapyrrha (in the British Museum), an insect, in my
opinion (and, I believe, in Mr. Prout's also), quite distinct from the
Australian euclidiata.
(3.) Sestra humeraria Walk., Huds. p. 89, pi. x, figs. 1, 2 ; and Sestra
flexata Walk., Huds. p. 90, pi. ix, fig. 37 (very poor figure). — Walker's
types are in the British Museum, and I have compared them with his
descriptions. There seems no room for .doubt that, by some unfortunate
slip. Mr. Hudson has reversed the two species.
In conclusion, I have a few remarks to make about the butterflies—
(1.) Anosia erripus Cram., Huds. p. 102, pi. xi, figs. 1, 2. — The synonomy
of this species is extremely confusing. Dr. Jordan, who has gone into the
matter very thoroughly, says that the genus Anosia Hiibn. (and several
of Moore's genera) are not really distinct from Danaida Latr., which has
priority. It would be in accordance with the best modern usage to call
the insect Danaida archippus Fab.
(2.) Anosia bolina Linn., Huds. p. 104, pi. xii, figs. 7, 8, 9. — This is
of course, not a Danaine, but a Nymphaline of the genus Hypolimnas
Hiibn.
(3.) Vanessa cardui Linn., Huds. p. 108, pi. xii, figs. 1, 2. — I quite agree
with Mr. Hudson that the form kershawi McCoy does not merit specific-
rank. The Hope collection at Oxford contains a specimen from Cyprus,
one from Mongolia, and three from Great Britain, with blue centres to the
black spots on the hindwing. The section of the old genus Vanessa to
which the three New Zealand species belong is now more commonly called
Pyrameis Hiibn.
(4.) Junonia velleda Fabr., Huds. p. 109, pi. xi, figs. 16, 17. — This is now
referred to Precis. 1 agree with Mr. Hudson as to the spelling of the name :
ve.Uida is meaningless.
Longstaff. — Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of N .Z . 115
(5.) Chrysophanus salustius Fabr., Huds. p. 117, pi. xii, figs. 18, 19,
20, 21 ; pi. xiii, figs. 2, 3, 4, 5. — Surely this name should be sallustius : the
other spelling is meaningless.
(6.) Chrysophanus enysii Butl., Huds. p. 117, pi. xii, figs. 22, 23, 24. —
The types of enysii Butler and feredayi Bates are both in the British Museum.
They are clearly conspecific, and Bates's name has priority. Mr. Hudson
is in error in supposing feredayi to be a form of sallustius.
(7.) Lycaena phoebe Murray, Huds. p. 119, pi. xii, figs. 10, 11. — This
is indistinguishable from Zizera labradus Godart, which has priority.
(8.) Lycaena oxleyi Feld., Huds. p. 119, pi. xii, fig. 12. — This was
referred to Zizera, but has lately been placed in Neolucia. Waterhouse and
Turner.
Art. VIII. — Descriptions of Three New Species of Lepidoptera.
By Alfred Prtlpott.
Communicated by Professor Benham.
[Bead before the Otago Institute, 3rd October, 1911.]
Hydriomenidae.
Chloroclystis lunata n. sp.
o. 18-19 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen dark greenish-fuscous.
Palpi 1|. Antennae biciliated with long fascicles, ciliations 3. Fore-
wings triangular, costa almost straight, termen slightly bowed, subsinuate
on lower half ; dark greenish- fuscous ; veins marked more or less with
black ; lines obscure ; some faint thin waved green lines near base ;
median band ochreous except beneath costa, anterior edge from | to f,
waved, hardly curved, posterior from f to f, bluntly projecting at middle
and concave on lower half ; a thin dentate bluish - green subterminal
line : cilia ochreous, barred with fuscous. Hindwings fuscous, sprinkled
with ochreous ; veins with alternate black and white dots ; a thin dentate
bluish-green subterminal line.
$ as 3, but median band almost obsolete, and with prominent irre-
gular crescentic white mark in middle of forewing, the limbs directed
posteriorly.
Wallacetown, in December and January. A reddish-brown larva found
feeding on Veronica on the 5th February pupated a few days later and
emerged as a $ moth early in the following December. Unfortunately a
fuller description of the larva was not secured.
The species differs from most of its allies in its darker ground-colour,
and in the $ the white crescentic mark is a good distinctive character.
116 Transactions.
Crambidae,
Orocrambus subitus n. sp.
$. 15-16 mm. Head dark brownish-fuscous. Palpi dark brownish-
fuscous, whitish above. Antennae fuscous. Thorax dark brownish-fuscous
with white lateral stripe. Abdomen dark brownish-fuscous. Forewings,
costa straight, apex obtuse, termen slightly oblique, golden brown sprinkled
with white scales, densely irrorated with white in disc and along dorsum,
white irroration produced as a streak from disc to apex, dorsum narrowly
black from base to J ; a thick black central streak from base to |, apex
obtuse, margined beneath with golden brown ; a short black streak above
apex of basal streak, anteriorly tapered ; a few black scales before tornus
indicating a black subterminal line : cilia dark golden brown with obscure
darker line. Hindwings dark brownish-fuscous ; cilia brown, paler round
tornus.
$. Forewings with white irroration . extending to costa ; black streaks
as in $, but margined with orange : cilia grey mixed with white. Hind-
wings, grey, paler round termen ; cilia grey.
Hump Ridge (Okaka) ; fairly common at 3,500 ft. in December.
Nearest to 0. thimiastis, but differing from that species in the colour
of the streaks in disc, which are white or yellow in thimiastis, black in
subitus.
Pyraustidae.
Scoparia clavata n. sp.
cJ. 26 mm. Head and thorax white, with a black lateral stripe from
eye to near middle of thorax. Palpi moderate, white above, sides and
beneath dark-brownish. Antennae and abdomen grey. Legs grey, ante-
rior pair suffused with fuscous. Forewings moderate, posteriorly dilated,
costa almost straight, apex rounded, termen subsinuate, oblique ; white,
irrorated with brownish-ochreous, costa narrowly brownish ; a thick black
median streak from base of costa to almost \, slightly constricted near
termination, apex rounded ; a thick black streak in disc above middle,
irregularly sinuate, beginning before \ and ending at about § in irregular
dilatation ; a subterminal black striga, inwardly oblique and dilated beneath
costa and above dorsum ; all streaks margined with brownish-ochreous ; a
terminal chain of linear black dots : cilia whitish with two grey lines.
Hindwings shining white, ochreous round termen ; cilia white, ochreous
near apex.
Hump Ridge ; in forest, at 3,000 ft., in December ; one specimen.
Easily distinguished from *S. roluella, its nearest ally, by the subterminal
black strigae ; it is also broader-winged than that species.
Mkyrick. — ])escn /it/O/iK of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 117
Art. IX. — Descriptions oj New Zealand Lepidoptera.
By E. Meyriok. B.A., F.R.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
I am again enabled by the kindness of Messrs. G. V. Hudson and
A. Philpott to present descriptions of a further series of new species
of Lepidoptera, representing the results of their labours during the past
season. These include some forms of remarkable interest.
Caradrinidae.
Melanchra xanthogramma n. sp.
<$. 37 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown mixed with whitish-
ochreous, sides of patagia and ridge of collar streaked with black and
whitish irro ration. Antennae bipectinated (a 2, b 1J), apical third
simple, ciliated. Abdomen fuscous, sides and apex tufted with reddish-
brown scales mixed with whitish - ochreous. Forewings elongate - tri-
angular, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen rather obliquely
rounded, crenulate ; light reddish-brown ; subbasal. first, and second
lines waved, indicated by interrupted edgings of black irroration, lower
end of subbasal connected with base by a bent dark red-brown and
blackish mark surmounted with yellow, second obsolete from near costa
to below reniform ; an elongate-oval suffused yellow spot beneath sub-
median fold between subbasal and first lines, and a streak of yellow
suffusion along dorsum from J to f ; spots darker reddish-brown,
edged with yellow and then with blackish, orbicular short-oval, rather
oblique, somewhat paler - centred, claviform rather smaller, roundish,
anteriorly defined by first line, reniform with posterior half pale and
whitish-mixed ; space between these darker, with some yellow and
blackish scales ; a dark-fuscous elongate patch extending from second
to subterminal lines above submedian fold ; some whitish suffusion
towards dorsum beneath this ; three whitish dots on costa between
second and subterminal lines ; subterminal line slender, yellow, straight
and edged with blackish posteriorly, towards extremities dentate and
unmargined, at ^ with a dilatation, below middle with a very abrupt
acute double dentation reaching termen ; a terminal series of lunulate
blackish marks : cilia reddish-brown mixed with paler and whitish.
Hindwings fuscous ; cilia whitish, basal half fuscous.
Wellington (Hudson) ; one specimen. At first sight much like a
variety of insignis, but (as Mr. Hudson correctly points out) the
antennal pectinations in that species are somewhat longer. An easy
distinction is afforded by the absence of the well-defined short black
basal streak of insignis.
Selidosemidae.
Selidosema lactiflua n. sp.
$. 36 mm. Head and thorax olive-greenish mixed with yellow-
whitish. Antennal pectinations, a 6, b 5 ; about 8 apical joints simple.
Abdomen whitish-yellowish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly archedT
118 Transactions.
apex rounded-obtuse, termen evenly rounded, rather oblique ; 10 and 11
separate ; olive-greenish, sprinkled with blackish ; costal area strigulated
with white from j to f ; lines formed by blackish suffusion, first and
second double, waved, first somewhat curved, second slightly and rather
irregularly curved, somewhat sinuate inwards towards dorsum, median
thick, somewhat curved ; a blackish transverse discal mark beyond median
line ; second line followed by a white band strigulated with olive-greenish ;
subterminal line slender, waved, white, preceded and followed by blackish
suffusion tending to form spots ; a terminal series of black lunulate marks :
cilia pale olive-greenish, sometimes sprinkled with blackish, narrowly and
obscurely barred with white. Hind wings whitish-yellow-ochreous, towards
dorsum and termen sometimes finely and slightly sprinkled with grey ;
a grey discal dot, sometimes faint ; a terminal series of slight dark-grey
marks ; cilia whitish-ochreous-yellow.
Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in February ; two specimens. A fine dis-
tinct species, resembling melinata and leucelaea.
Crambidae.
Orocrambus pervius n. sp.
<$. 25 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dark fuscous, palpi mixed
beneath with whitish hairs, shoulder with a slight white mark. Antennae
shortly ciliated (\). Abdomen dark grey, apex whitish. Forewings elon-
gate, posteriorly dilated, costa hardly arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded,
somewhat oblique ; dark fuscous, irregularly strewn or partially suffused
with ochreous-brown scales ; costal edge slenderly whitish on median area ;
a rather narrow white median longitudinal streak from base to termen,
beyond middle shortly attenuated or interrupted : cilia grey, with a white
bar on median streak. Hindwings dark grey, pectinations ochreous-whitish ;
cilia ochreous-whitish, basal third grey. Hindwings beneath largely suffused
with ochreous-whitish.
Lake Wakatipu, 3,600 ft. (Hudson), in February ; two specimens.
Closely allied to catacaustus, which, however, is browner, with a white
shoulder-stripe (not mentioned in my description), and with the median
stripe only seldom showing a tendency to interruption ; but the reliable
distinguishing character lies in the form of the forewings, of which in cata-
caustus the termen is not oblique on the upper portion.
Pyraustidae.
Scoparia triscelis Meyr.
This distinct species, originally described from Auckland Island (" Sub-
antarctic Islands of New Zealand," p. 71), has now been found by Mr.
Hudson at Lake Wakatipu ; a very interesting observation.
Scoparia locularis n. sp.
$. 21 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi 2f, dark fuscous, basal
joint white. Antennal ciliations §. Thorax white mixed with grey and
dark fuscous. Abdomen grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, narrow at
base, costa posteriorly moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen sinuate,
oblique ; light grey, irregularly mixed with white, with some scattered
black scales ; an oblique streak of black suffusion from base of costa ; first
line white, rather oblique, slightly sinuate, posteriorly strongly edged with
black suffusion ; orbicular and elaviform represented by elongate marks
Meyrick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 119
of black suffusion connected with this : discal spot 8-shaped, outlined
with black, upper half larger but less defined, connected with costa by
a spot of black irroration ; second line slender, irregular, white, anteriorly
interruptedly edged with black, slightly curved, indented beneath costa
and more strongly on submedian fold ; subterminal suffused, whitish,
strongly sinuate inwards in middle to touch second line and more or less
interrupted above the connection, the sinuation filled with a spot of blackish
suffusion : cilia pale fuscous, with blackish ante-median and fuscous post-
median lines, broadly barred with whitish. Hind wings 1|, without hairs
in cell ; pale grey, becoming darker posteriorly ; discal mark and post-
median line faintly darker ; cilia grey-whitish, with interrupted dark-
fuscous subbasal line.
Mount Arthur, 3,400 ft., and Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in January
and February ; two specimens. Allied to tor odes.
Scoparia agana n. sp.
S- 23-25 mm. Head white. Palpi 3, rather dark fuscous, basal joint
white. Antcnnal ciliations \. Thorax purplish-grey. Abdomen pale
greyish-ochreous. Forewings elongate, narrow at base, posteriorly dilated,
costa posteriorly gently arched, apex obtuse, termen straight, rather
oblique ; fuscous, irregularly mixed with white ; indistinct streaks of
dark-fuscous irroration along fold from base to first fine, and posteriorly
between veins ; lines formed of white suffusion, first curved, oblique,
second rather curved, indented beneath costa and above dorsum ; orbi-
cular and claviform represented by indistinct longitudinal marks of dark-
fuscous suffusion resting on first line ; discal mark obscurely X-shaped,
formed by blackish irroration, lower half filled with whitish suffusion ;
subterminal line broad' suffused, whitish, almost terminal, rather sinuate
inwards in middle but not reaching second line : cilia grey-whitish, with
interrupted grey ante-median line. Hindwings 1^, without hairs in cell ;
grey-whitish, with brassy-yellowish reflections ; cilia yellow-whitish.
Lake Wakatipu, in February (Hudson) ; one specimen. A second
taken by myself on Arthur's Pass, at 3,000 ft., in January. Allied to
crypsinoa.
Pterophoridae.
Stenoptilia vigens Feld.
Oxyptilus vigens Feld., Keis. Nov., pi. cxl. 49.
$. 19 mm. Head pale brownish, sides whitish, face prominent. Palpi
1\, ochreous-brown, lower edge whitish towards base. Thorax ochreous-
white, suffused with light brownish anteriorly. Abdomen whitish-ochreous,
towards base white. Forewings cleft to f, segments rather broad, apex
pointed, termen oblique, on second segment slightly bowed ; reddish-
brown, suffusedly mixed with whitish in disc, with a broad streak of white
suffusion along dorsum, dorsal edge tinged with reddish-ochreous ; costa
suffused with dark fuscous, dotted with whitish from base to beyond
middle ; a dark red-brown spot mixed with black on base of cleft, above
which is a patch of white suffusion not quite reaching costa ; posterior
area of first segment occupied by a blotch of darker red-brown suffusion
mixed with black, marked with a bar of white suffusion close before ter-
men ; second segment somewhat sprinkled with whitish posteriorly : cilia
on costa dark fuscous, on termen and in cleft white, with a small blackish
patch at lower angle of first segment and upper angle of second, and a
120 Transactions.
blackish basal line on termen of second segment ; cilia round torn us and
on dorsum fuscous. Hind wings rather dark fuscous : cilia grey, base
grey-whitish.
Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in February. This is an interesting re-
discovery, as Felder's species had never been recognized before, and his
localities are frequently quite erroneous. It is allied to choradrias.
Stenoptilia zophodactyla Dup.
Mr. Hudson sends a specimen of this nearly cosmopolitan species,
taken near Wellington in November, stating it to be very rare. It has
not been previously recorded from New Zealand. It is common in Europe,
which is probably its place of origin ; but I have also received it freely
from India, Australia, South Africa, and South America. The larva feeds
on Erythraea, but must also be attached to other Gentianaceae, and is
probably artificially introduced. It may have reached New Zealand only
quite recently.
Carposinidae.
Carposina morbida n. sp.
cj. 26 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi 2J, porrected, ochreous-
whitish. basal half suffused with dark olive-grey. Antennal ciliations 4.
Thorax ochreous-whitish, shoulders with an ochreous spot. Abdomen
ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, posteriorly some-
what dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen straight, rather
oblique ; silvery-whitish-ochreous, irregularly strewn with ochreous scales,
costa and dorsum somewhat sprinkled with grey ; a small brownish-
ochreous basal patch, edge parallel to termen ; six small shots of
grey suffusion on costa between this and apex ; tufts brownish-
ochreous, posteriorly white — viz., one beneath costa at \, preceded
by a dash of black irro ration, one beneath this towards dorsum , a
larger one in disc beyond these, preceded by a black dash on sub-
median fold, two towards costa in and beyond middle edged with
black beneath, one below middle edged with black above, and a ridge
on transverse vein, irregularly edged with black anteriorly, between
these in middle of disc is an elongate patch of grey suffusion ; some
scattered black irroration crossing wing at £ ; cilia whitish, with two
greyish shades. Hindwings and cilia whitish. Under-surface of fore-
wings and hindwings largely clothed on anterior half with modified
pale yellow-ochreous scales, on forewings anteriorly suffused with grey.
Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in February ; one specimen. Can only
be confused with exochana ; but the <J of that species has much longer
porrected palpi (4).
TORTRICIDAE.
Harmologa tritochlora n. sp.
$. 22 mm. Head and palpi pale ochreous, palpi 3. Thorax whitish-
ochreous; patagia suffusedly mixed with grey. Abdomen ochreous-whitish.
Forewings elongate-oblong, co3ta moderately arched towards base, thence
nearly straight, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, somewhat ob-
lique ; whitish-grey suffused with pale brassy-yellowish, becoming whitish-
yellowish towards costa and termen, irro rated with darker grey on dorsal
half towards base : cilia whitish-yellowish. Hindwings and cilia creamy-
white.
Mbthick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 121
Lake Wakatipu, 4,000 ft. (Hudson), in February ; one specimen. Allied
to siraea and aenea, but cannot be united with either ; doubtless the <£ ,
as in those species, is very different, with dark hind wings.
Oecophoridae.
Izatha metadelta Meyr.
Mr. Hudson suggests that percnitis Meyr. is the $ of this species, and
on consideration of the available material, having now several specimens
of each form, all the pewnitis being <$ and all the metadelta $, I have no
doubt his view is correct, and they must be united as sexes.
Glyphipterygidae.
Simaethis zomeuta n. sp.
$. 18 mm. Head and thorax bronzy-brown, sprinkled with whitish.
Palpi with whorls of blackish white-tipped scales, base white. Antennae
dark fuscous dotted with white. Abdomen dark fuscous. Forewings
elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen
bowed, rather oblique ; bronzy-ochreous-fuscous ; some violet-white irro-
ration towards base and termen ; a moderately broad darker median
transverse fascia, angulated above middle, edged by obscure shades of
violet-white irroration, becoming more distinct on costa, where the second
forms a clear white oblique mark : cilia bronzy-ochreous, with two dark-
fuscous shades, and white patches on outer half above and below middle.
Hindwings bronzy-fuscous, becoming blackish on posterior half ; a rather
incurved white streak crossing dorsal half of wing from £ of disc to tornus,
and some whitish irroration between this and termen ; cilia whitish, basal
third dark fuscous.
Mount Arthur, 4,600 ft. ; one specimen taken by myself in January t
not in fine condition, but twenty-five years have passed without further
captures. Near combinatana, but distinguishable by clear white streak of
hindwings, and the joints of antennae are relatively much more elongate
and slender.
Simaethis ministra n. sp.
S- 9 mm. Head dark fuscous, face sprinkled with white. Palpi
with whorls of dark-fuscous white-tipped scales, base white. Antennae
dark fuscous, shortly pubescent-ciliated. Thorax dark fuscous. Abdo-
men dark fuscous, segmental margins partially white. Forewings sub-
oblong, costa moderately arched anteriorly, apex obtuse, termen slightly
rounded, somewhat oblique ; dark bronzy-fuscous ; five very undefined
irregular transverse shades of white irroration, first three rather curved
or bent, fourth forming a clear white spot on costa beyond middle and
then a fine silvery quadrangular loop passing behind a transverse linear
discal mark of white irroration, fifth straight, interrupted above middle ;
two or three silvery-metallic scales before termen above middle : cilia
white with dark-fuscous shade (imperfect). Hindwings light fuscous,
becoming darker towards termen ; dorsal half with scattered white scales ;
a well-marked irregular white streak extending across dorsal half of wing
from disc at f nearly to tornus, its lower half approximated to termen ;
cilia white, with fuscous subbasal and post-median shades.
Mount Holdsworth (Hudson); one specimen. This and the two fol-
lowing species are closely allied and very similar, agreeing together in
122 Transactions.
having the antennae of <$ shortly pubescent-ciliated, whilst in S. marmarea,
which is also very similar superficially, they are ciliated with long
fascicles (3), as is usual in the genus. S. ministra differs from the
other two in having the antennae wholly dark fuscous, the forewings
obviously broader anteriorly, with costa more arched than in either of
the others, the white markings of forewings less defined, the white
streak of hindwings broader and more irregular, reaching termen at
| from apex and continued almost to tornus.
Simaethis microlitha Meyr.
cJ $. 9-10 mm. Head and thorax irrorated with white above ; scales
of palpi longer and more projecting than in analoga ; antennae dotted
witli white : abdomen with segmental margins strongly white. Fore-
wings more narrowed towards base than in ministra, fasciae of white irro-
ration more strongly marked, fourth slender, but more sharply marked
and brightly silvery-metallic above discal mark and at apex of dorsal
section. Hindwings with white streak slender, regular, well-marked, ex-
tending | across wing from f of disc to middle of termen and thence
running partially interrupted near termen almost to tornus.
Arthur's Pass, 3,000 ft., in January ; two specimens. In my descrip-
tion of this species I included also the following, which I now separate
from it, and therefore specify the more characteristic points which dis-
tinguish the true microlitha from the preceding and following species ;
the character of the marking of hindwings is the most obvious of these.
Simaethis analoga n. sp.
c?$ . 8-9 mm. Head dark fuscous, face and sides of crown irrorated
with white. Palpi with whorls of dark-fuscous white-tipped scales, base
white. Antennae dark fuscous dotted with white, in cJ shortly pubescent-
ciliated. Thorax dark fuscous, somewhat sprinkled with white, inner
edge of patagia white. Abdomen dark fuscous, segmental margins strongly
white. Forewings rather elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex
obtuse, termen slightly rounded, somewhat oblique ; dark bronzy-fuscous ;
three curved cloudy transverse lines of white irroration on anterior half,
two posterior sometimes irregularly confluent ; a white line beyond middle
forming a quadrangular loop behind a transverse-linear white discal mark,
upper side of loop silvery-metallic, lower absent, a silvery-metallic dot
on upper extremity of dorsal segment ; a straight cloudy line of white
irroration from f of costa to tornus, interrupted above middle ; a trans-
verse silvery-metallic mark before termen above middle : cilia white with
two thick dark-fuscous lines, and dark patches at apex, middle of termen,
and tornus. Hindwings fuscous, becoming dark fuscous posteriorly ; a
very short white detached transverse mark before middle of termen, and
sometimes a dot on tornus ; cilia white, with two thick dark-fuscous lines.
Mount Arthur, 4,000 ft., in January ; ten specimens. As explained
above, I originally regarded this as a form of microlitha, but now think
it distinct. Doubtless more species of this group will be discovered in
the mountains, and an attempt should be made to ascertain their food-
plants.
Ereunetis acrodina n. sp.
$. 14 mm. Head whitish-ochreous, hairs of forehead slightly mixed
with dark fuscous. Antennae grey-whitish, basal joint with a blackish
Meyrick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepiduptera. 123
spot. Palpi whitish, second joint streaked with dark fuscous above and
beneath, terminal joint dark fuscous towards base. Thorax whitish-
ochreous. shoulders with a dark- fuscous spot. Abdomen ochreous-whitish.
Forewings elongate, narrow, costa moderately arched ; apex round-pointed,
upturned, termen extremely obliquely rounded ; greyish-ochreous, with a
few dark-fuscous scales ; markings fuscous mixed with blackish ; four
oblique patches from costa, more or less confluent with a broad irregular
submedian streak from near base to apex, first near base, second broadest,
before middle, third narrow, fourth reduced to a streak ; an irregular dark-
fuscous apical spot surrounded with white : cilia whitish, with an inter-
rupted black subbasal line, and fuscous post-median line, tips fuscous at
apex. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish, at apex with two dark-
grey lines.
Wellington (Hudson) ; one specimen. Intermediate between erebistis
(which has hitherto stood rather isolated) and fulguritella.
Taleporia Hb.
The genus Taleporia has not previously been identified from the
Southern Hemisphere, but the following species agrees fully with it,
except that veins 7 and 8 of the forewings are separate, whereas in the
typical European species they are stalked ; in this group, however, this
character is of little importance, and I have no hesitation in regarding
the species as a true Taleporia, a very interesting discovery.
Taleporia aphrostcha n. sp.
<3 22 mm. Head, palpi, and antennae dark fuscous, antennal cilia -
tions 2|. Thorax dark fuscous, with several whitish dots posteriorly.
Abdomen dark grey, somewhat whitish-mixed. Forewings elongate, rather
narrow at base, posteriorly dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse,
termen obliquely rounded ; all veins separate ; white, mixed with grey
in disc and towards costa, coarsely reticulated throughout with dark
fuscous ; the white colour forms a more conspicuous quadrate spot on
dorsum before middle, including a dark - fuscous dorsal strigula, and
preceded and followed by irregular dark-fuscous spots : cilia fuscous,
basal half spotted with white. Hindwings dark grey ; cilia fuscous.
$ apterous, active.
Hump Ridge, Invercargill, 3,500 ft. (Philpott) ; a pair in December.
Hepialidae.
Porina copularis n. sp.
S 38-40 mm., $ 44—50 mm. Head and thorax pale ochreous, some-
times partially tinged with fuscous. Antennae in <J shortly bipectinated
with flattened-wedge-shaped teeth. (2). Abdomen pale ochreous, in $ in-
fuscated except anal tuft. Forewings formed nearly as in umbraculata,
but costa more sinuate ; pale ochreous, in $ tinged with fuscous ; a white
dot finely edged with dark fuscous in disc at \, and an elongate mark
beyond middle ; in $ sometimes a smaller dot beneath submedian fold
rather beyond first ; a faint pale irregular sinuate transverse shade at §,
sometimes marked with a few indistinct fuscous strigulae, and sometimes
a series of indistinct fuscous dots beyond this : cilia whitish-ochreous,
barred with ochreous or greyish-ochreous. Hindwings pale fuscous tinged
with ochreous ; cilia as in forewings.
West Plains, Invercargill (Philpott) ; five specimens.
124 Transactions.
Porina jocosa n. sp.
<J 40-44 rain., $ 44-51 mra. Head and thorax varying from light
fuscous or brownish-ochreous to dark fuscous, posterior extremity of thorax
sometimes whitish. Antennae in <J shortly bipectinated with flattened -
wedge-shaped teeth (2). Abdomen fuscous or ochreous. Forewings formed
nearly as in copularis, but slightly broader and less elongate ; fuscous,
sometimes dark fuscous in disc, in one 3 ochreous-brown ; a white or
whitish dot edged with dark fuscous in disc towards base (in $ sometimes
absent), a second at J, sometimes enlarged into an irregular spot or
lengthened posteriorly into a streak, and an irregular longitudinal mark
somewhat beyond middle ; in <$ some whitish suffusion or ring-marks
towards dorsum anteriorly ; a confluent irregular series of small dark
whitish-ringed sometimes pale-centred marks crossing wing about §, more
defined in c?, sometimes preceded in disc by a partial second series of
similar marks, sometimes connected with a whitish patch beneath middle
of disc ; a whitish ring-mark on costa before apex ; a terminal series of
small dark semicircular spots edged with whitish : cilia whitish or whitish-
ochreous, barred with fuscous or dark fuscous. Hindwings fuscous, in
one £ suffused with light ochreous ; cilia as in forewings.
West Plains, Invercargill (Philpott) ; six specimens.
MlCROPTERYGIDAE .
Sabatinca Walk.
This generic name supersedes Palaeomicra Meyr., but I have formed
a new genus, Micwpardalis, to contain doroxena Meyr.
Sabatinca caustica n. sp.
S. 9-10 mm. Head and thorax bronzy-orange-ochreous. thorax some-
times marked with whitish. Antennae ochreous, towards apex blackish.
Abdomen dark purple-grey. Forewings ovate-lanceolate, costa moderately
arched, apex pointed, termen extremely obliquely rounded ; violet-coppery-
ochreous, in one specimen largely suffused with whitish ; in one specimen
a spot of dark purple -fuscous suffusion on dorsum towards base, one in
disc beyond middle, and some irregular marking towards termen, and in
the whitish-suffused specimen the dark purple-fuscous suffusion forms a
blotch along anterior portion of costa connected with a large oblique blotch
in middle of disc, a streak along dorsum from base to f, a subterminal
fascia enclosing a white spot on costa. and a mark along termen in middle,
but in the other two specimens there are no markings : cilia golden-
ochreous. Hindwings deep purple ; cilia pale golden-ochreous.
Seaward Moss. Invercargill, in October (Philpott) ; four specimens.
The amount of variation is remarkable, but all the specimens were taken
together, and are undoubtedly the same species ; the shape of forewings
is characteristic, being more pointed than in any other species. The species
may be placed between zonodoxa and chrysargyra.
Sabatinca incongruella Walk.
This name supersedes chalcophancs Meyr.
Sabatinca calliarcha n. sp.
(J. 12 mm. Head light bronzy - ochreous, hairs extremely long.
Antennae pale ochreous ringed with dark fuscous. Thorax clothed
Meyrick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 125
with long bronzy-ochreous hairs, beneath which is a white bent stripe
on each side of back. Abdomen blackish, apex ochreous- whitish.
Forewings elongate-ovate, costa moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen
very obliquely rounded ; yellow ; dorsum suffused with ferruginous-
brown, with a few black scales on edge ; four golden-whitish streaks
from costa between base and f converging towards posterior half of
dorsum, first edged posteriorly with ferruginous-brown mixed with indigo-
black, hardly reaching dorsum, other three margined on both sides with
ferruginous - brown streaks and on costa with black, second and fourth
reaching dorsum, third reaching about half across wing ; posterior area
ferruginous-brownish somewhat mixed with pale yellowish, with an irre-
gular black dot in disc at f, and four black dots on costa edged beneath
with golden-whitish ; a thick black streak lying along termen from near
apex to tornus, edged with ochreous-yellowish and interrupted to form a
long upper and short lower portion, upper portion including two golden-
metallic terminal dots : cilia light ochreous-yellowish, with a violet-coppery
basal line edged externally with grey. Hindwings deep purple, disc and
veins blackish ; cilia blackish-grey.
Bluecliff, Invercargill, in December (Philpott) ; one fine specimen.
This is a beautiful and remarkably distinct species, showing some super-
ficial approximation to Micropardalis doroxena, but structurally a true
Sabatinca in all respects. 1 regard it, however, as the earliest form of
the genus. I entertain no doubt that other forms of this primitive family
Temain to be discovered in New Zealand, and, as they are amongst the
most important and interesting elements of the fauna, it is very desirable
that collectors should make special efforts to find them. Probably the
larvae feed on damp mosses, and Conifer forests are the most likely
locality, especially in the early part of the season, perhaps before
collectors usually take the field. The perfect insects fly in the sunshine,
but in partially shaded places, and are sometimes extremely difficult to
see.
Addendum.
Since writing the above, additional material has been submitted to me,
which includes the two following species : —
Eucosma querula n. sp.
<J$. 21-28 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dark fuscous. Abdomen
fuscous, not hairy. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, in
cJ with very short and narrow basal fold, apex obtuse, termen rounded,
rather oblique ; purplish-bronzy-fuscous suffusedly mixed and strigulated
with dark fuscous ; costa obscurely pale-strigulated on posterior § ; a
whitish or ochreous- whitish dot in disc at § ; two or three variable curved
transverse series of small dark-fuscous spots or dots between this and
termen : cilia fuscous, with darker line near base. Hindwings fuscous,
posteriorly sometimes faintly darker-strigulated ; in <3 without special
characters ; cilia pale fuscous.
Christchurch and Wellington, in April (Philpott. Hudson) : four specimens.
I have also two $ from Queensland which I refer with little doubt to this
species ; I suppose it to be indigenous in Australia (and very likely in some
of the Malayan islands), and to have been recently introduced into New
Zealand. It belongs to a group of several Indian and Malayan species
which are almost exactly alike in superficial appearance, but possess good
126 Transactions.
characters for discrimination in the secondary sexual structures of the $
— viz., the costal fold of forewings, the folding and tufting of the dorsal
margin of hind wings, and the presence of hairy tufts on the abdomen.
Sabatinca quadrijuga n. sp.
cJ. 13 mm. Head pale-greyish. Antennae dark fuscous. Thorax
purplish. Abdomen grey, lateral claspers and supraanal projection longer
and narrower than in caustica. Forewings ovate-lanceolate, less acute than
in caustica. stalk of 7 and 8 extremely short ; deep purple, irregularly mixed
with coppery-golden, darker and bluish on costa ; four subquadrate
ochreous- whitish spots on costa between base and f , larger anteriorly, and a
dot towards apex : cilia grey-whitish, with several dark-grey bars. Hind-
wings violet-grey, darker towards apex ; cilia grey- whitish, on costa barred
with grey suffusion.
Invercargill (Philpott) ; one specimen received through the kindness of
Mr. Hudson.
Art. X. — Notes on some Dragon-flies from the Kermadec Islands.
By R. J. Tillyard. M.A., F.E.S.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th August. 1911. \
In a small collection forwarded to me by Mr. A. Hamilton, of Wellington,
New Zealand, five species are represented, four being species of wide
distribution in the Australasian region, and the fifth (represented by a
solitary female) probably a local race of a widely distributed oceanic
genus of which the species and races have not yet been correctly worked
out. They are the following.
Fam. LIBELLULIDAE.
Subfam. Libellulinae.
1. Tramea sp., 1 $ (label No. 2).
Somewhat immature, and of pale coloration. The dark patch at the
base of the hindwings is exceedingly small, and does not spread down-
wards into the anal areas of the wing. The male of the insect should be
obtained, as from the form of the $ appendages and genitalia the species
could be determined with certainty. I am of opinion that this will prove
to be a. local race of a widely distributed oceanic species. The genus
is highly migratory, and one species is rapidly travelling down the east
coast of Australia, and getting a strong hold there.
Subfam. Corduliinae.
2. Hemicordulia australiae Rambur (label No. 3).
2 $, 2 <$. In good condition, a dark and handsome form, practically
identical in size and colouring with the specimens found in the Sydney
district. This beautiful species, recognizable by the brilliant metallic-green
Tilltard. — Dragon-flies from the K ermadec Islands. 127
frontal patch on the head, and the sharp spine on the underside of
the male appendages, has never before been recorded outside Australia.
It ranges from Victoria, through New South Wales, to northern Queens-
land, but does not occur west of the main mountain-ranges. Its capture
in the Kermadec Islands is therefore of considerable interest. The genus
Hemicordulia is post-Miocene, so that the occurrence of this species may
be taken as evidence of late land connection between Australia and the
Kermadecs. The species is non-migratory, and does not occur in Tas-
mania, though exceedingly common on the northern shores of Bass Strait.
The inference, therefore, is that the Kermadecs may have been united
in some way, possibly via New Caledonia and Queensland, to Australia
since the time (? Miocene) when Tasmania became separated. We should
also expect, possibly, to find this species on Lord Howe and Norfolk
Islands, whose Odonate fauna are still unknown.
Fam. AESCHNIDAE.
Subfam. Aeschninae.
3. Hemianax papuensis Burmeister (label No. 1, o)-
1 $. Immature, but a fine specimen (appendages broken). Common
all over New Guinea and Australia, except Tasmania, where it is absent.
A strong flier, but not migratory. This reinforces the evidence of No. 2,
Hemianax also being a Miocene or post-Miocene genus.
4. Aeschna brevistyla Rambur, 2 $ (label No. 1, $).
One specimen immature, one mature. This insect is found all over
Australia, except in the most northern parts. It also occurs in Tasmania.
In New Zealand a somewhat smaller and darker form occurs, which, though
clearly conspecific with the Australian, may be distinguished at once from
it by its abdomen being exceedingly pinched at the third segment, and
its membranule very dark, with only a little white at the base. The
Kermadec specimens are identical with the New Zealand form.
Fam. AGRIONIDAE.
Subfam. Agrioninae.
5. Ischnura aurora Brauer (= /. delicata Selys), (label No.]4).
5 c£, 6 $. A very beautiful species, of wide distribution, ranging
from the islands north of Australia, through Australia, to Tasmania. In
Western Australia a dimorphic female, coloured like the male, occurs.
The male has a bright-red abdomen shading to black, with a blue tip ;
the ordinary female is dull-blackish. These Kermadec specimens are
practically identical with any series of this insect taken round Sydney.
In conclusion, therefore, this small collection shows the Kermadec
Odonata to have a strong Australian element (three species out of five), a
New Zealand element (one species), and an oceanic element (one species)
128 Transaction*.
Art. XI. — Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea.
By Charles Chilton, M.A., M.B., D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Biology,
Canterbury College, University of New Zealand.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th September, 1911.]
This short paper contains a few miscellaneous notes that have been made
during recent years on some New Zealand Crustacea. Though there are
many other questions that require to be settled, and several groups that
need thorough revision, it has been thought worth while publishing these
few notes as they stand, though they are necessarily somewhat discon-
nected, and deal with scattered members of the Crustacea.
Order Decapoda.
Hymenosoma lacustris Chilton.
Elamena (?) lacustris Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 14, p. 172,
pi. 8, 1882. Hymenosoma lacustris Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 15. p. 69, 1883 ; Fulton and Grant, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria,
vol. 15, p. 59. pi. 8, 1902 ; Chilton, P.Z.S. for 1906, p. 703, 1906.
This small fresh-water crab was originally described from Lake
Takapuna (or " Pupuke "), near Auckland, which is quite near the sea-
coast, and for a long time this was the only locality from which it
was known, and it was a little uncertain whether it was a genuine fresh-
water form or a relict species that had only comparatively recently de-
veloped in Lake Takapuna. In 1902, however, Messrs. Fulton and Grant
recorded the species from Lake Colac, in Victoria, and about the same
time I received several specimens from Norfolk Island. Specimens
from all these localities were examined by Messrs. Fulton and Grant,
and, although there are a few slight differences, these were found to be
not constant, and they decided to consider all the forms as belonging to
the one species.
In 1903 two specimens of the crab were found by Messrs. Hodgkin
and Lucas in Lake Waikare, in Auckland, which is a considerable distance
from the coast ; and in the early part of this year (1911) a few specimens
undoubtedly belonging to the same species were sent to me by Mr.
Cheeseman from the Waipa River.
It seems evident from the above facts that the species is a widely
distributed inhabitant of fresh waters, and its occurrence in the fresh
waters of New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Victoria presents a problem
of some interest in connection with the geographical distribution of the
Crustacea. In connection with this point, it is, however, worth while
stating that the fresh-water shrimp in Norfolk Island and Victoria is
Xiphocaris convpressa De Haan, and is quite different from the species,
X. curvirostris Heller, which is found in nearly all the fresh-water streams
of New Zealand, and occurs also in the Chatham Islands.
Chilton. — Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea. 129
Munida gracilis Henderson.
Munida gracilis Henderson. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 16.
p. 411, 1885; and "Challenger" Reports, vol. 27, p. 143, pi. 3.
fig. 6, 1888.
Three imperfect specimens found in the stomach of a fish, Kaikoura.
These agree very closely with Henderson's descriptions, but they are
of much larger size. One of them, a female bearing eggs, has the follow-
ing dimensions : Length of body, 54 mm. ; breadth of carapace, 16 mm. ;
length of carapace, 19 mm. ; length of rostrum, 13 mm. ; length of cheli-
peds, 70 mm.
Two specimens were taken by the " Challenger " at Station 166, west
of New Zealand, at a depth of 275 fathoms, but so far as I am aware the
species has not been seen since until the specimens now described were
handed over to me by Mr. Waite, Curator of the Canterbury Museum.
Cryptodromia lateralis Gray.
Cryptodromia lateralis Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 57. 1876 ; G. M.
Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 31, p. 170^ pi. 20, fios. 1 and 2.
1898 ; Hutton, N.Z. Journ. Sci., vol. 1, p. 264, 1882.
This species was recorded from New Zealand by Heller, and specimens
in the British Museum collections were referred to it with some doubt
by Miers when he was preparing the " Catalogue of the New Zealand
Crustacea." In 1882 Hutton included it in a list of species which had
been recorded from New Zealand, and might really belong to New Zea-
land, although at the time he wrote they were not represented in any
local collections known to him. This was still the case when Thomson
prepared his " Revision of the Crustacea Anomura," in 1897. Two or
three years ago, however, I received from Captain Bollons a specimen,
dredged in Hauraki Gulf at a depth of 22 fathoms, that undoubtedly
belongs to this species, so that, like soi.ie of the other species first re-
corded from New Zealand by Heller, and since considered doubtful, it is
found in New Zealand seas, though, apparently, only occasionallv. The
species is also known from Australia and Tasmania.
Order Amphipoda.
Leucothoe traillii G. M. Thomson.
Leucothoe traillii G. M. Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 14, p. 234,
pi. 18, fig. 1 a-d, 1882 ; Stebbing, Das Tierreich Amphip., p. 164,
1906. L. Widens, Stebbing, Rep. Voy. " Challenger," vol. 29,
p. 777, pi. 47, 1888 ; Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 268,
1905 ; Stebbing, Das Tierreich Amphip., p. 166, 1906.
I have no doubt these two species should be combined. I had
identified specimens from Hauraki Gulf as L. tridens Stebbing, but T find
that they are the same as a Lyttelton specimen that I had years ago
referred to L. traillii G. M. Thomson, and I find from comparison of these
with named specimens of this species since received from Mr. Thomson
that no difference can be detected between them. Mr. Thomson de-
scribes the dactyl of the first gnathopod as being " finely serrated on its
inner margin," but in all my specimens it appears quite smooth. In Mr.
Thomson's mounted specimen the dactyl lies close up against the propod,
•5 — Trans.
130 Transactions.
and its inner margin cannot be clearly seen, but it appears smooth there
also. In his original description Stebbing describes the telson as having
" the minute apex microscopically tridentate," and figures it as distinctly
tridentate ; in the " Das Tierreich " description he simply says, " apex
a little obtuse," which perhaps more accurately describes the appearance
of the telson in those specimens that I have examined.
Hab. — Hauraki Gulf (25 fathoms), Paterson Inlet (10 fathoms). Taken
also in New Zealand seas by the " Challenger " (2,000 fathoms).
Pontogeneia danai (G. M. Thomson).
Atylus dania, A. danai G. M. Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 11,
pp. 238. 248, pi. 10f, fig. 1, 1879. Pontogeneia danai Stebbing,
Das Tierreich Amphip., p. 360, 1906. Atylus lippus Haswell,
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 4, p. 328, pi. 20, fig. 1, 1880, and
Cat. Aust. Crust,, p. 243, 1882 ; Chilton, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W..
vol. 9, p. 1037, 1885. Eusiroides lippus Stebbing, Das Tier-
reich Amphip., p. 316, 1906 ; Stebbing, Results " Thetis " Exped.,
Memoir Aust, Mus., vol. 4, p. 639, 1910.
Lyttelton, Akaroa, Dunedin (G. M. Thomson), Bluff (L. Cockayne),
Stewart Island (H. B. Kirk). Also Port Jackson, New South AVales, and
Portland, Victoria.
Very common in rock-pools ; colour very variable.
Closely allied to P. antarctica Chevreux, from which it differs in having
every 4th (or 5th) segment of flagellum of antennules dilated and the
dilatation more prominent.
Atylus lippus Haswell is put down by Stebbing as an obscure species
of Eusiroides. I have, however, several specimens from Sydney Harbour
and other places in Australia which seem undoubtedly to belong to Has-
well's species, and they certainly should be placed under Pontogeneia, and
a comparison of them with New Zealand specimens shows that they are
the same as P. danai G. M. Thomson, a species described a year earlier.
Paraleptamphopus subterraneus (Chilton).
Paraleptamphopus subterraneus (Chilton), Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 41,
p. 54 (with synonomy).
In the paper quoted above I gave the localities from which the species
had been found up to that time. Shortly afterwards, on the 24th De-
cember, 1908, I took it among moss, &c, in a small mountain-stream at
Duck Cove, Dusky Sound. The specimens were perhaps slightly yellower
than those found underground, but showed no sign of eyes, and in all
other respects seem quite the same as those first found in the underground
waters of the Canterbury Plains.
In January, 1911, Mr. W. F. Howlett sent me specimens from Eke-
tahuna, which had been obtained from a well in the same way as those
originally got from the Canterbury Plains. The only previous record from
the North Island had been one specimen obtained in Lake Taupo, at a
depth of 700 ft., by Messrs. Hodgkin and Lucas.
It is evident that this species is even now widely distributed through-
out New Zealand, usually inhabiting underground waters, but occasion-
ally found also in surface streams.
Chilton. — Notes on somi New Zealand Crustacea. 131
Elasmopus viridis (Haswell).
Moera viridis Haswell, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 4. p. 333.
pi. 21. fig 1. 1879. M. incerta Chilton. Trans. n!z. Inst.,
vol. 15, p. 83, pi. 3, fig. 3, 1883. Elasmopus viridis Stebbing,
Das Tierrcich Amphip., p. 445, 1906.
Several specimens from Island Bay. Wellington (Farquhar coll.), were
in Mr. G. M. Thomson's collection. The species is known from Australia
also.
When I described this species under the name Moera incerta I had
seen only specimens in which the second gnathopod had the palm straight
— i.e., the females. Since then I have seen a few in which the palm has
a slight central cavity, as described by Haswell and Stebbing, though the
cavity is by no means so deep as that shown in Haswell's figures ; I
think, therefore, that Stebbing is right in uniting the two species. These
specimens, are. I presume, males, and it is worthy of note that in this
species the females have the second gnathopods approximately as large
as those in the males, and. with the exception of the palm, of the same
general shape.
Phronima novae-zeaiandiae Powell.
Phronima novae-zealandiae Hutton. Index Faunae N.Z.. p. 256.
1904,
This is a common pelagic form often washed up on the sandy beaches
of New Zealand. In June, 1911, two specimens were found at Sumner,
where Powell's type specimens were captured, and were sent on to me by
Professor Park, of Dunedin. In March, Mr. C. Barham Morris, of Oamaru,
sent me a mounted slide of a small Phronima. taken at Tomahawk Beach.
Dunedin. This specimen appeared to be identical with the one referred
to P. pacifica Streets by Stebbing in the "Challenger" Reports (p. 1350).
As P. pacifica had not been previously recorded from New Zealand, I wrote
to Mr. Morris asking if he had further specimens, and in reply was in-
formed that the small specimens were taken along with ordinary large
specimens which he considered to be P. novae-zealandiae.
I find from the examination of one of the large specimens kindly
forwarded by him that this identification is quite correct, and it appears
almost certain, therefore, that the small specimens taken at the same
time are simply immature forms of P. novae-zealandiae. Most of them
measure about 4 mm. in length. The " Challenger " specimen, which was
taken in the Atlantic Ocean, off Sierra Leone, was " T3o in." in length, and
was therefore probably an immature form also.
P. pacifica was originally described by Streets from the North Pacific
Ocean, and was said to be distinguished from P. sedentaria by the broadly
quadrate form of the carpus of the third pair of thoracic feet and by
having the carpus of the second gnathopods less produced anteriorly. It
was also pointed out that there was a striking resemblance of the smaller
specimens of P. pacifica and the corresponding parts of P. atlantica, which
is said to be the female of P. sedentaria. It appears, then, that there is
some suspicion that P. pacifica is not a distinct species, but perhaps an
immature stage.
Unfortunately, I am unable to consult all the literature necessary on
this point, but the forms I have seen undoubtedly seem to be the young
of P. novae-zealandiae. and if not identical with P. pacifica are extremely
132 Transactions,
close to it. This seems to make it more probable that P. novae-zeal andiae
is identical with P. sedentaria, as was suggested by Stebbing in the
" Challenger " Report.
Order Isopoda.
Iais pubescens (Dana) var. longistylis var. nov.
This variety differs from the typical form of the species in the longer
uropods, which are fully half as long as the pleon ; the peduncle is shorter
than the rami, and may be slightly dilated at the distal end ; the outer
ramus is almost or quite as long as the inner, but slightly more slender,
and has long setae, usually at the end only ; the inner ramus has long
setae both at the end and at a point some distance from the end.
Hob. — On Sphaeroma quoyana, Marlborough Sounds and Hawke's Bay.
Also on specimens of the same species from Sydney Harbour.
I have had specimens of this variety for several years. The dif-
ference between it and the typical form of the species is sometimes so
distinct that I have at times almost been inclined to give it a different
specific name, especially as it appears to be always associated with a
different species of Sphaeroma. I find, however, that Iais pubescens found
on Sphaeroma gigas shows considerable variation in the length of the
uropods ; I have one specimen from Lyttelton which has them much
longer than usual, and approaching the condition found in the variety
now described, while others from Port Chalmers have the uropods much
shorter, with the outer ramus very small and only about half as long as
the inner one. I can, moreover, find no constant points of difference
except in the uropoda, and therefore prefer to look upon the form found
on S. quoyana as merely a variety of the species.
Haliacris neozelanica (Chilton).
Munna neozelanica Chilton, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. 9,
p. 1, pi. 1 and 2, 1892. Haliacris neozelanica Chilton, Subant.
Islands N.Z., p. 650, 1909.
A number of specimens that appear to belong to this species were taken
at Waikawa Bay, in Queen Charlotte Sound, near Picton, in July, 1910.
They were found in considerable numbers creeping on the under-surface
of stones in a fresh-water stream at a point a little above high-water mark,
the water at that place being at the time quite fresh, though it would be
probably more or less influenced by high tides. The animals were all very
small, and I have not been able to find one having the characteristic deve-
lopment of the first pair of legs of the adult male ; but, so far as can be
seen, the specimens are not structurally different from those gathered at
the type locality in Port Chalmers, though they have the body rather
darker in colour.
One similar specimen was also taken at Portage, on Kenepuru Sound,
also at the mouth of a small stream, and in both cases specimens of
Phreatogammarus propinquus were taken at the same time and place.
Many years ago I collected one or two specimens in a similar situation at
Waitati Estuary, Otago, but they were so minute that an exact identifica-
tion at the time was impossible.
Structurally these fresh-water or brackish-water specimens do not
seem to differ from the typically marine form, but there seems not much
Chilton. — Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea. 133
doubt that they do differ considerably in habit, and perhaps should be
looked upon as a special variety. All the specimens found were quite
small, not more than 2 mm. in length, and it is, of course, possible that
only the young stage is passed through in the stream, and that as the
animals become older thev take to the sea.
Jaeropsis curvicornis (Nicolet).
Jaera curvicornis Nicolet in Gay's Hist. fis. y pol. de Chile, vol. 3.
p. 263, pi. 3, fig. 10, 1849. Jaeropsis neo-zelanica Chilton,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 24, p. 267, 1892. J. curvicornis H.
Richardson. Trans. Connect. Acad. Sci., vol. 11. p. 298, 1902 ;
Stebbing, Ceylon Pearl Fisheries Report, pt. 4, p. 51, pi. 11 (c).
1905. J. patagoniensis H. Richardson. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
vol. 36, p. 421 (with figure), 1909.
I have specimens of this species from Akaroa, Taylor's Mistake, and
Lyall Bay. The colour seems somewhat variable, the dorsal surface being
a light brown and legs whitish ; in one specimen, however, the brown
colour was present only on the posterior part of the head and the first four
segments of the paraeon, the remainder of the dorsal surface being whitish.
The Akaroa specimen, which I described in 1892 under the name Jaeropsis
neo-zelanica, is a very small one, only about 2 mm. in length ; one of
the specimens from Taylor's Mistake is considerably larger, being 5 mm.
in length, and comparison of this, which I have no doubt belongs to the
same species as the Akaroa and other specimens, enables me to give some
points in which the larger and presumably adult specimen differs from
the small immature ones. In the larger specimen the flagellum of the
antennae is considerably longer than in the other specimens, and consists
of about twelve joints, the first one being much the largest, as long as the
remainder together, and being broadly expanded. In this specimen, too.
the sides of the pleon are smooth, except for a small tooth about a third
the length from the posterior end. In small specimens the sides of the
pleon are somewhat serrated, the last serration, which corresponds with
the one still present in the older specimen, being slightly the most pro-
minent.
All the species of this genus appear very closely similar, and from what
has been said above it seems probable that some of them have been esta-
blished on small and possibly immature specimens. I think Mr. Stebbing
is right in uniting J. neo-zelanica with J. curvicornis (Nicolet), and the
specimens which he describes from the Gulf of Manaar certainly seem to
be close enough to be placed under this species. I have no doubt also
that the specimens more recently described by Miss H. Richardson under
the name J. patagoniensis also belong here, the pleon agreeing closely with
that of my larger specimen ; the other points she mentions, as regards
colour, &c, are hardly of specific importance ; the lobe at the front of the
head is described and figured by her as having a small point in the centre,
while in my specimens it is rounded in front. Nicolet draws his specimens
with this lobe slightly concave in front, and, in any case, the difference
appears to be very trifling. J. marionis Miers, taken by the " Challenger "
off Marion Island, seems to be pretty closely allied, but, as represented
by Miers, has the joints of the antennae much less expanded, and the
uropoda are perhaps rather different in structure.
134 Transactions.
Sphaeroma quoyana Milne- Edwards.
Sphaeroma quoyana Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat. des Crust., vol. 111.
p. 206, 1840 ; Heller, Eeise der Novara, Crust, p. 137, 1868 ;
Haswell, Cat, Aust. Crust., p. 287, 1882; Hedley, Rep. Aust.
Assoc, vol. 8, p. 239, pi. 10, fig. 1, 1901. S. verrucauda White,
List Crust. Brit, Mus., p. 102 (sine descr.), 1847 ; Dana, U.S.
Explor. Exped., vol. 14, Crust., pt. 2, p. 779, pi. 52, fig. 6, 1853 :
Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. Ill, 1876 ; Haswell. Cat. Aust, Crust,,
p. 288, 1882 ; Hutton, Index Faunae N.Z., p. 263, 1904 ; Steb-
bing, Spolia Zeylanica, vol. 11, pt. 5, p. 21, 1904 ; Hansen, Q. J.
Micro. Soc, vol. 49, pt, 1, p. 116, 1905 ; Hedley, Rep. Aust.
Assoc, vol. 8, p. 239, 1901.
Sphaeroma quoyana was described by Milne-Edwards in 1840 from
Australian specimens, but nothing appears to have been recorded by him
about its boring habits. Haswell had not seen the species when preparing
the " Catalogue of the Australian Crustacea."
In 1853 Dana described a species under the name of S. verrucauda.
from the Ray of Islands, New Zealand, his specimens having been found
" in rotten wood in cavities bored by Teredo." Miers, in his " Catalogue
of the New Zealand Crustacea," in 1876, records the species from " Auck-
land, Hobson's Bay," and notes that these specimens inhabited " similar
cavities in a piece of sandstone." He also mentioned that specimens from
Port Jackson, Australia, were in the collections of the British Museum,
but that the New Zealand specimens were much more hairy than those
from Australia. Many years ago Mr. J. Macmahon sent me numerous
specimens that I identified as S. verrucauda, which he found boring into
soft sandstone on the shores of Kenepuru Sound, and in July, 1910, I found
similar specimens in the neighbouring Queen Charlotte Sound, and was
able to see for myself beyond doubt that the holes in the sandstone were
bored by the Sphaeroma and not by a Teredo ; the holes vary in size
from 2 mm. to 7 mm. in diameter, and were occupied by Sphaeromae
of corresponding sizes, and there was no trace of any Teredo in the
sandstone.
In 1901 Hedley, in a paper on the " Marine Wood-borers of Austral-
asia," mentions both S. verrucauda and S. quoyana, the latter having
been found boring in wood in Sydney Harbour, and mentions that it
hardly differs from S. verrucauda. In 1903 I received from Mr. T. White-
legge specimens of S. quoyana from Sydney Harbour, and in forwarding
them he said, " S. quoyana is identical with specimens from Mr. Thom-
son's collection labelled ' S. verrucauda.'' " These specimens were some of
those that had been handed on by me to Mr. Thomson.
I have now been able to compare specimens from different parts of
New Zealand, and also others, labelled " S. quoyana," from Victoria and
Tasmania, and I quite agree with Mr. Whitelegge that the two species
should be united. The species belongs to the same section of Sphaeroma
as S. terebrans Spence Bate and the other species found boring into
wood in various parts of the world, and the fact that S. quoyana is
undoubtedly able to bore into sandstone seems worthy of definite
record.
Iais pubescens var. longistylis (see above) seems to be regularly asso-
ciated with S. quoyana as a commensal or semiparasite just as the typical
form of /. pubescens is with Sphaeroma gigas.
Chilton. — Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea. 135
Exosphaeroma chilensis (Dana).
Sphaeroma chilensis Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Crust., p. 177, pi. 52,
fig. 3 a-c, 1853. Exosphaeroma chilensis Chilton, Rec. Cant.
Mus.. vol. 1, p. 310, 1911.
Three specimens of this species were obtained at the Chatham Islands
during the trawling cruise of the " Nora Niven," and are described in my
report of the results of that cruise. I had previously had specimens from
Lyttelton and Auckland, the latter collected by Mr. Suter.
The occurrence of the species in New Zealand is noteworthy as another
addition to the marine species common to New Zealand and to South
America.
Livoneca raynaudii Milne-Edwards.
Livoneca raynaudii M.-Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., vol. 3, 1840, p. 262 ;
Thielemann, Abhand. K. Baver. Akad. d. Wissensch., 2, Suppl.
Bd., 3 Abhand., p. 42, 1910 "; Chilton, Rec Cant. Mus., vol. 1,
p. 309, 1911.
I have discussed the synonomy of this species, which has so long been
known in New Zealand under the name of L. novae-zealandiae, in the paper
quoted above. The species is widely distributed in southern seas, and
Thielemann records it also from Yokohama, adding that it is closely allied
to L. calif ornica Sch. & M., from the coast of California. L. epimerias
Richardson, from Japan, also seems to be very closely ?llied, but, accord-
ing to Miss Richardson, differs in the shape of the head and the epimera.
Art. XII. — Report on Sundry Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands.
By Professor Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S., Otago University.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 3rd October, 1911.]
Mr. Oliver was good enough to hand to me (for the purpose of identifi-
cation, or description if need be) representatives of various classes of
non-vertebra ta collected by him during his sojourn on Sunday Island.
Unfortunately, my time has not allowed me to touch the Oligochaeta, the
Polychaeta, Nemertines, or parasitic worms. In this brief report there
are one or two points upon which I have to express uncertainty, owing
to the lack of necessary literature ; but it seems desirable to present this
list, as I do not see any prospect of being in a better position in the
immediate future to deal more fnlly with them.
Class Hydrozoa.
Order Siphonophora.
Physalia utriculus Eschscholtz.
Lesson, Voy. de " Coquille," vol. 2, pt. 2, chap. 15, p. 39 ; Zoophytes
pi. 5, fig. 2. Haeckel, "Challenger" Reports, 28, p. 351.
Cast ashore on Denham Bay, Sunday Island. Widely distributed in
the Pacific.
136 Transactions.
Velella cyanea Lesson.
Lesson, Voy. de " Coquille," vol. 2, pt. 2, chap. 15. p. 54 : Zoophytes,
pi. 6, figs. 3, 4. Haeckel, " Challenger " Reports. 28, p. 83.
This common Pacific species was cast ashore on Denham Bay.
„ . ,, Class Scyphozoa.
% Atolla sp.
A single somewhat torn and distorted specimen, measuring 3Umai.
in diameter, with a height of 15 mm. in the centre of the umbrella, was
found on the shore of Sunday Island. It was so much injured that I am
not quite sure even of the genus ; but it agrees in so many features with
Atoll a that I have but little hesitation in placing it here. I will not. how-
ever, attempt to give a specific name to it.
ClaSS HOLOTHUROIDEA.
Actinopyga (Muelleria) parvula Selenka.
M. flavo-castanea Theel : Selenka, Zeit. Wiss. Zool., 17, 1867. " Chal-
lenger " Reports, Holotkuroidea, pt. 2, p. 198, 1886.
Fifteen specimens were sent to me. Oliver notes that the " colour
is dark brown to nearly black : common at Coral Bay, under stones near
low-water mark ; not seen elsewhere." In alcohol it is chocolate-brown
with a purplish hue. The majority are uniformly coloured, darker dorsally
and only slightly paler ventrally ; but in four individuals there is an
abrupt transverse line separating the dark anterior region from a posterior
paler region. In one specimen the change occurs at about -f of its length
from the anterior end, in two others at §, and in one at a of the length.
From the condition of the ventral ambulacra it appears that this hinder
end has been regenerated, for here the podia are in distinct narrow lints,
whereas in the normal darker part of the body these organs spread out
into the interambulacra, where there are about 15 in a transverse, line,
instead of only 2 to each ambulacrum. There is, too, a transition observable
as the ambulacra are traced forwards, indicating a gradual resumption of
the adult condition.
Distribution.- — Bedford, in his report on the Funafuti Holothurians,
speaks of this species as " the most widely distributed circumtropical
species of the genus."
Chirodota rigida Semper.
Semper, Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen, Holothurien, p. 18,
pi. 3, fig. 3; pi. 5, figs. 3, 13, 1868. Lyman Clark, "The
Apodous Holothurians," p. 117, 1907.
The wheels differ from those figured, in that there .is a distinct con-
striction of the radii at their junction with the rim ; but, as my specimens
agree in the general characters of the species, I have little doubt that this
is the correct determination. Oliver states that the " general colour is
reddish-purple ; it occurs in sand and mud under stones in rock-pools
and at low-water mark. It is not common."
Log. — Meyer Island.
Distribution. — Clark says it is " apparently well distributed through
the entire East Indian region."
Benham. — Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands. 137
Class SlPUNCULOIDEA.
Sipunculus nudus Linnaeus.
This Mediterranean species is widely distributed ; it has been recorded
from Singapore, Japan, and elsewhere.
hoc. — Sunday Island.
Collected by Mr. E. S. Bell.
Physcosoma scolops. Selenka and Man.
Phascolosoma annulata Huttcn, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 12, p. 278, 1880.
Phymosoma scolops Selenka and Man, " Die Sipunculiden," p. 75,
1884. Physcosoma annulatum Benham, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 36.
p. 173, 1904.
When I described the Sipunculids of New Zealand (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vols. 36, 37) I had not the opportunity of consulting Selenka's monograph,
which was only purchased by the Otago Institute at a later date. I find
now that our common Sipunculid, which Hutton described in 1879, is
identical with Selenka's P. scolops, a very widely distributed species, which
was described five years later. Hutton's brief diagnosis, depending only
on externals, is insufficient for identification, and so must give way to
Selenka's specific name.
I note that, although Fischer (Die Gephyrea, Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete
Naturwiss., 13, p. 10, 1895) regards P. scolops as a variety of the Medi-
terranean P. granulatum, Shipley still retains it as a distinct species
(Willey, Zool. Results Rep. on the Sipunculoidea, p. 156, 1899 ; and Rep.
on the Gephyrea, Pearl Oyster Fishery, Ceylon, p. 174, 1903).
It is evidently very common on the Kermadec Islands, for I have
more than fifty I collected on various parts of Sunday Island and on
Meyer Island in the ordinary positions — -that is, under stones in rock-
pools, in amongst coralline algae, &c.
The distribution is very wide.
Aspidosiphon truncatus Keferstein.
Selenka and Man, "Die Sipunculiden," p. 118, pi. 13, 1884.
Of this identification I do not feel quite certain, for the convolutions
of the intestine are fewer, and the longitudinal muscle bands rather
more numerous ; but as our specimens agree in so many features with
those of Keferstein's species, and do not agree with any other description
to which I have access, I place it here. The differences are so slight that
I do not feel competent to differentiate a new species.
Loc. — Sunday Island, in coralline algae. Six specimens.
Distribution. — Mauritius, Panama, Japan (Ikeda, Jo urn. Coll. Sci., 20).
Class Chaetognatha.
Sagitta fowleri nora. nov.
Fowler, " On Plankton Chaetognatha of the Bay of Islands, New
Zealand," Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), 1, p. 240, 1908.
I received seven specimens of a rather large Chaetognath which had been
cast ashore, and were somewhat injured, and had unfortunately been placed
in a tube rather too small for them, so that they are not only damaged by
the sand, but also folded and crumpled. At first I failed to notice the
anterior lateral fin, and took it for a species of Krohnia ; but the formula
given by Dr. G. H. Fowler for an unnamed species from the Bay of Islands
138
Transactions.
agrees so precisely with the Kerrnadec forms, and in some respects is so ex-
ceptional, that I carefully went through all the specimens again. In only one
individual could I detect the anterior fin, and this quite plainly, although it
was folded against the body. In its extent it does not agree with Fowler's
figure, though he places a (?) against his statement in the text. But owing
to the damage done to the posterior fin, and owing to the tenuity of this
anterior fin, I should not presume to doubt Fowler's statement that this
fin extends forwards as far as the level of the ventral ganglion, though,
so far as my specimen shows it, the fin is of much less extent.
Fowler refrained from naming his two immature and somewhat
damaged specimens, and did not even place it in a genus, though he states
that certain of its characters "suggest hexajptera,'''' at the same time
pointing out certain differences from that species. As the only genus with
two lateral fins is Sagitta, there is little doubt that he intended to compare
it with S. hexaptera, and I take the opportunity of naming it after him.
My specimens vary from 23-35 mm. in total length, with a diameter
of 2-5-3 mm. Owing to flaccidity of the body, it flattens easily, and has,
as I have said, been crumpled.
The head is distinctly constricted from the body ; the curved hooks, or
' jaws," are 8 or 9 on each side ; in one case 8 on one side and 9 on the
other. They have no distinct separate tip, but the whole hook is gently
curved and without any serrations.
The frontal spines, or " anterior teeth," are on 3 each side, though in
one case 4 on one side and 3 on the other.
The marginal spines, or " hinder series of teeth," form a row of 3 short
conical spines on the sloping anterior margin of the head.
The tail fin is in all my specimens slightly notched ; the posterior
lateral fin commences rather in front of the middle of the tail, and is
widest just behind the anus. So far as the imperfect condition allows
one to judge, it has ^ of its length behind and f in front of the anus.
The anterior fin is only 3 mm. in length ; it seems well defined, and
I failed to see any evidence of its continuation forwards ; its anterior
margin is 10 mm. from the tip of the head (the ventral ganglion being
about 6 mm.) ; its posterior limit is 5 mm. in front of the anus — that is,
close to the posterior fin.
The formula used by Fowler is —
Total Length.
Tail, as Percentage
of Total Length.
Number of
Jaws.
Number of
Anterior Teeth.
Nurnbir of
Posterior Teeth.
35
20
8
27
20
9
3
3
25
20-3
8-9
3-4
3
Loc. — Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Bav of Islands.
Class Enteropneusta.
Ptychodera flava Eschscholtz.
Willey, Q. J. Mic. Sci., 40, p. 165. Punnett, Enteropneusta, Fauna
Maldive and Laccadive Archip., vol. 2, pt. 2.
A single lacerated broken individual, found " under stones " at Coral
Bay, Sunday Island, July, 1908.
Distribution. — Indian Ocean .
Hogben. — Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific. 139
Art. XIII. — Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific in 1910.
Bv George Hogben, M.A., F.G.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
The most interesting problems in connection with seismology at the
present time are those relating to the paths of earthquake-waves through
the earth. The paths of the so-called long waves, which show the maximum
amplitude, lie, it is generally agreed, along arcs approximately parallel to the
earth's surface, at no great depth below the surface. Their mean velocity
of propagation is in almost all cases very near to 3-3 kilometres per second,
or 200 kilometres (or 125 miles) per minute. The velocity of the prelimi-
nary tremors is much higher — often four times as great, or even more.
These waves, being the first to be recorded, must travel by the brachisto-
chronic path from the origin to the places of observation, and, whether
this path be approximately rectilinear or not, the high speed of the waves
shows that they must be transmitted through a medium or media of much
greater elasticity than that possessed by the surface rocks. The deter-
mination of the actual path of these preliminary tremors is therefore the
point upon which attention is being just now especially directed. The
problem is mainly a geometrical problem, and obviously the first step is
the determination of the positions of the epicentra of the earthquakes
discussed. These epicentra are likely to be most correctly ascertained
when the data used are those from observatories so near the origin that
it may be reasonably presumed (a presumption to be tested by the agree-
ment of the results) that the medium through which the waves travel is
homogeneous, or nearly so, and yet not so near the origin that the ordinary
errors of observation can substantially affect the results. If the paths of
the preliminary tremors can be ascertained in such a way that we can
formulate a general law, then we shall be able to draw, with a reasonable
degree of certainty, inferences as to the constitution of the earth's interior
— as to the density, elasticity, and thickness of the successive shells of
which the earth is made up.
#It therefore becomes the duty of the seismological observers in any
region of the world to ascertain as nearly as may be the positions of the
origins or of the epicentra of the principal earthquakes occurring in that
region. Accordingly I have devoted myself during the last twenty years
to the determination of earthquake-origins within the New Zealand region,
and incidentally, at the request of the Seismological Committee of the
Australasian Association, to rinding the origins of some other Australasian
earthquakes. It will be of more service to the solution of the problems
in hand, however, if this work is extended to a wider region, and accord-
ingly the results of systematic inquiry into the earthquake-origins of the
whole south-west Pacific are now placed before you. Those in the present
paper relate to the year 1910.
The records used are those received from the Milne seismograph stations,
which are published twice a year by the British Association Seismological
Committee, edited by Dr. John Milne, F.R.S. ; also records received from
the Directors of the observatories at Apia, Batavia, Manila, and River-
view, Sydney (the instruments at all the last-named observatories are of
the Wiechert type). For these I am indebted to the courtesy of the respective
Governments of Germany, Holland, and the United States, and to the kind
offices of the Rev. Father Pigot, Director of the Riverview Observatory.
140
Transactions.
The waves used for determining the origins are the preliminary tremors
and the long waves ; the methods for the most part trial methods, such
as the differential method and that based upon the interval between the
arrival of the Px waves
and those of maximum
amplitude.
The results for eleven
earthquake s in which the
data are sufficient to
determine the epicentra
are given below. Those
called "approximate"
are epicentra probably
correct within the limits
of error of the observa-
tions ; those called
"probable" are epicentra
for which there are re-
sidual errors somewhat
in excess of the limits of
errors of observation.
(It should be noted
that the method of least
squares cannot properly
be used unless the phy-
sical conditions are ap-
proximately the same.
For instance, we cannot
use it in reference to
equations based upon ob-
servations from stations
varying greatly in their
distance from the origin ; it should be applied only to deductions from
observations of waves passing along the same paths, or, assuming the
symmetrical distribution of the various strata of the earth, passing along
paths of nearly the same length.)
The origin in each case may, of course, have been a more or less exten-
sive mass below the epicentrum indicated on the map (fig. 1). The map
also shows the positions of previously ascertained origins in Australasia.
Remarks.
Not recorded in Europe or other
distant .stations.
Recorded at near and distant sta-
Fig. 1.
Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific, 1910.
I G. Hogben.j
• Approximate epicentrum.
O Probable epicentrum.
x Origins previously found.
Date.
Position of Epicentrum.
1910.
13 Jan.
Lat.
41° S.
Long.
143° E.
Approximate
3 Feb.
52° S.
153° E.
Probable
30 March
1 June
16 „
29 „ («) ..
29 „ (b) ..
19° S.
18° S.
27° S.
11° S.
51° S.
160° E.
170° E.
173° E.
172° E.
173$° E.
5)
Approximate
Probable
Approximate
7 Sept.
9 Nov.
26 „
10 Dec.
32° S.
17° S.
5° S.
2° N.
179° VV.
167° E.
165° E.
146° E.
1 5
Probable
tions.
Ditto.
Between Campbell Islands and An
tipodes islands. AH stations.
All stations.
Hogben. — Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific. 141
The most interesting of all these earthquakes is perhaps that of the 9th
November, 1910, the origin of which appears to have been below the ocean,
a little to the south-west of Espiritu Santo, in the New Hebrides Group.
The ascertained elements of the preliminary tremors of this earthquake
with reference to eleven stations are given in the table below.
Earthquake of 9th November, 1910.
(Bpicentrum, 17L 8. Lat.. 167° E. Long. Time at Origin. 6h. 03-7 min.
G.M.C.T.)
Place of Observation,
and
Instrument.
Apia (Wiechert)
S y d n e y (Wiechert
and Milne)
Wellington (Milne)
Perth (Milne)
Honolulu (Milne) . .
Batavia (Wiechert)
Zikawei (Wiechert)
Victoria, B.C. (Milne)
Madras (Milne)
Edinburgh (Milne). .
San Fernando, Cadiz
(Milne)
Latitude.
13° 48' S.
33° 56' S.
41° 17' S.
31° 57' S.
21° 19' N.
6° 08' S.
31° 15' X.
48 24' X.
10° 14' X.
55 57' N.
36c 28' X.
Longitude
Arcual
Distance
Chordal
Time of
Pi
6h. +
min.
V,(Arc)!
from
Distance
Kilom.
Origin
(Kilom.).
(Kilom.).
per min.
v.
(Chord)
Kilom.
per min.
171° 46' \Y.
151c 12' E.
174°
115°
158°
109°
121°
123°
77"
3°
6°
47' E.
50' E.
03' W.
50' E.
26' E.
22' W.
28' E.
11' W.
12' W.
2,296
2,452
2,800
5,365
5,711
(,,317
7,235
10,056
10,285
15,667
17,889
2,284
06-7
765
2,436
06-9
766
2,777
07-35
767
5,209
10-6
778
5,521
10-8
804
6,063
11-7
790
6,850
12-4
832
9,050
14-6
923
9,201
15-1
902
12,000
22-1
851
12,560
22-6
946
761
761
761
755
778
758
781
830
807
652
665
Note. — P1; preliminary tremors ; V, , velocity of Px waves.
It will be seen that in this case there is a closer agreement between the
velocities (values of Vx) for paths calculated along the chord than for those
calculated along the arc ; in other
words, that the chords represent a
closer approximation to the actual
paths than the arcs. (It will be
understood that the chord cannot be
the actual path of a wave passing
through layers of varying density,
and subject, therefore, to refraction
at the bounding surfaces.)
It will be seen that the velocity
(Px) of waves, calculated along the
chord, for places not more than 60°
from the origin is about 760 kilo-
metres, per minute ; that for places
between about 60° and 90° from the
origin the chordal velocity is
greater ; that for distances over 90°
it is considerably less.
This enables us to formulate a possible Paths of Pj Waves, 9th November,
i, 4-V ■ -n 4.- ± J l ^ j- 191°. t0 Wellington, OW ; Perth, OP:
hypothesis illustrated by the dia- Zikawei, OZ; Victoria (B.C.), OV; Sari
gram (fig. 2). Disregarding the sur- Fernando, 111, or 222, or 3 r 3. O, origin,
face rocks, which I have elsewhere
shown to be not more than twenty-five to thirty miles in thickness, we
may assume a shell of much greater density about 500 miles in depth (AAA,)
Fig. 2.
142 Transactions.
and below that a shell of still greater density about 630 miles thick (BBB).
Below the last-named shell there seems to be a marked change of physical
condition — either the density is much less (which is hardly conceivable) or
the centrosphere (CCC) is viscous. I have drawn hypothetically the possible
paths of preliminary waves reaching the San Fernando Observatory from the
origin : (a) They may have been transmitted along a path approximating
to the chord 111, but with greatly reduced speed through the central
portion ; or (b) they may have been transmitted along, or nearly along,
the path 2 2 2, as internal surface waves for the middle portion of the
path — that is, along the surface of the centrosphere ; or (c) they may have
been transmitted along a path 3 r 3 — that is, along the chords Or, r S.F.,
being reflected at r.
I put this forward as a mere trial hypothesis, based upon the examina-
tion of the records of one earthquake, and examined only partially by other
records. It is, however, I think, worth careful examination in the light
of all the available data of other earthquakes. I propose to make such an
examination (which may last months, or even years), and hope to place
the results, whether positive or negative, before you on a future occasion.
I should like to express my appreciation of the kindness of the observers
in charge of the Milne seismographs at Sydney, Adelaide, Perth, and Christ-
church in sending me copies of their records and seismograms. I regret
that I have been unable to obtain any of the records of the instrument at
the Melbourne Observatory.
Art. XIV. — Fluctuations in the Level of the Water in some Artesian Wells
in the Christchurch Area.
By F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., D.Sc.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th December, Wll.\
As part of the activities of the Artesian Wells Committee of the Canter-
bury Philosophical Institute, observations on fluctuations in the static
height of the water in some flowing wells in the Christchurch artesian area
were undertaken early in January, 1910. The records of the wells will be
dealt with separately.
(1.) Lincoln College Well.
This well is 341 ft. deep from the ground-level, which is 38 ft. above
sea-level. It is a 2 in. pipe, and was sunk in 1893. The water rises to
about 8 ft. above ground-level.
There are in the district four other wells of approximately the same
depth. The nearest of these is about three-quarters of a mile away, and
the next nearest over a mile away.
The observations were taken by means of a glass tube attached to a tap
bored into the well-pipe, and the tube was backed by a wooden scale
marked in centimetres. The hydraulic rams worked by the well were shut
off for the purpose of taking the observations, and the water in the tube
Hilgendorf. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area. 143
allowed to come to rest. The oscillations ceased in about five minutes. A
loose-fitting plug was placed in the top of both the well-pipe and glass tube
to prevent the wind blowing down and agitating the level of the water.
The readings were taken at 8 a.m. and 5 p.m., and only eleven read-
ings were missed during the year.
The Monthly Fluctuation.
Disregarding the minor variations, the well sank gradually from January
to June, during which time it fell 24 cm.. or 10 in. On the 10th June
and the following days, 6 in. of rain fell at Lincoln, and the well then
started to rise, and continued to do so for four months, during which
time it rose 66 cm., or 2 ft. 2| in., on an average of the weekly readings.
The lowest individual reading was 71-2 cm. on the 4th June, and the
highest 141-5 cm. on the 25th September and the 17th October. This gives
a maximum difference of 70-3 cm., or about 2 ft. 4 in.
The following graph shows the static level of the well for each month
during the year, all the readings for the month being averaged to find
the level for that month. Below the graph of the static levels there is
shown the monthly rainfall at Lincoln in inches.
wetu
cm.
J. J
• /
-V A /
"» J
6. J
f' '
*
y
? '
f J
RAIN,
bitch
135
1^0
.a?
120
115
jfO
IOS
•
IOO
q§
P"
qo
7
8*
W
ffo
s
u
/
4"
*
3"
2
l"
-
£«,
Fig. I.— ftloNTirr.Y Averages or Height of Welt., and Monthly Totals of Rain
l'ux at Lincoln.
144
Transaction a.
A study of this graph shows that the rainfalls from January to May
were not enough to balance the water drawn off from the reservoir sup-
plying the well ; that the rains in June and July were sufficient to
replenish it ; that the almost total absence of rain in August was accom-
panied by a still further rise in the level of the water, possibly indicating
that the heavy rainfall of the previous months was still percolating to
the reservoir ; that the rains of September and October were accom-
panied by a slight rise, although they were almost exactly equal to
the rainfall of January and February, which were accompanied by a
fall in the level of the well ; and that falls took place in November and
December.
These last facts, and also, in part, the rise in August, are probably to
be explained by the great amount of evaporation in November, December,
January, and February, and its smaller amount in August, September,
and October ; that the evaporation might have an effect on the
fluctuation of the well did not suggest itself to me early enough for me
to install evaporation-gauges. It seems probable that the evaporation in
the summer months would exceed the rainfall, and thus assist the lower-
ing of the static level of the well ; while in August, September, and October
the evaporation would be very slight, and thus all the rainfall would be
available for replenishment of the reservoir. The following table by
Greaves, taken from Warrington's r' Physical Properties of the Soil,"
p. 108, is instructive : —
Evaporation from a Water Surface near London (Average of Fourteen
Years).
Month.
Rainfall.
Evaporation.
Month.
Rainfall.
Evaporation.
Jan.
2-87
0-76
July
1-77
3-44
Feb.
1-60
0-60
Aug.
2-33
2-85
March
1-94
1-07
Sep.
2-35
1-61
April
1-43
2-10
Oct.
2-73
1-06
May
2-06
2-75
'■ Nov.
2-02
0-71
June
2-21
3J4
-
Dec.
2-42
0-57
Total rain, 25-73 in. ; total evaporation, 20-66 in.
I think it probable that a graph of the monthly rainfall minus
evaporation would approximate the graph of the static level of the
well, and I regret that the importance of the evaporation did not occur
to me earlier.
This fluctuation of over 2 ft. during the course of the year is very
much greater than that of 10 in. recorded by Captain Hutton, but is much
less than one mentioned by Mr. Home, of Leeston, who says that he had
there a well which in a dry season was 3 ft. 6 in. below ground-level, and
in a very wet season rose to 14 ft. above ground-level. A gravel-pit at
Springston about 10 ft. deep is nearly always dry in February, and fre-
quently is full to overflowing in August.
Hilgkndorf. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area.
145
The Weekly Fluctuation.
The following graph of the weekly averages of the readings of the
well shows clearly the relation between the static level of the well and
the rainfall.
Fig. 2. — Weekly Averages of Height of Well, and Weekly Totals of Rainfall
at Lincoln.
It is clear from this graph that the well rises whenever rain falls, and
that the rise in the well is approximately proportional to the rainfall.
This result was anticipated from the work of Hutton* and Speight, f but
it was considered impossible that the rainfall at Lincoln could be respon-
sible for the rise in the well there, since, as before mentioned, the well
draws its water from 341 ft. below ground-level.
Lincoln is situated on the Canterbury Plain, fourteen miles from the
sea. The plain is about fifty miles wide, and slopes upwards from the
sea to the mountains, at whose feet its level is about 1,300 ft. It is com-
posed of a coarse gravel interstratified (especially in its coastal portions
near Christchurch) with clay, peat, &c, as described by Speight (loc. cit.).
On the supposition that the lower strata have been laid down at a steeper
angle than those now on the surface, the water-bearing stratum tapped by
the Lincoln College well should outcrop on the surface of the plain some
miles above Lincoln, and it would probably be the rain falling on this
outcrop that would supply the well. This idea is embodied in the following
diagrammatic sketch, where the heavy lines show the clay strata between
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. (554.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 420.
146
Transactions,
the shingle. If this were a correct supposition, it was considered possible
to locate the outcrop of the water-bearing stratum by means of observing
the rainfall at a number of places between Lincoln and the mountains.
Fig. 3. — Diagram of the Structure of the Plain.
and noting at which places the rainfall most nearly corresponded with the
fluctuations in the level of the well. For this purpose rain-gauges were
installed or existing installations were used to obtain records of the daily
rainfall from the following places : Rolleston, Lawford, Kirwee, Darfield,
Hororata, G-lenroy, and Mount Torlesse. The positions of these places are
shown on the following map, which also shows the two rivers of the district.
The slope of the plain is from north-west to south-east.
0m
SCALE OF ENCLim MILES
10.
PACIFIC
Fig. 4. — Map of Portion of Canterbury Plain, showing Positions of Rain-
gauges.
1, Lincoln; 2, Rolleston: 3, Lawford (half-way between Weedon's and West
Melton) ; 4. Kirwee ; 5, Darfield ; f>, Hororata ; 7, Glenroy ; 8, Mount Tor-
lesse (two miles above Springfield).
Hilgendokf. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area.
147
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148 Transact/on*.
Unfortunately, all the records did not begin at the beginning of the
year, those from Darfield not commencing till the 1st April, and those at
Rolleston till the 1st June. Valuable information was thereby lost. The
records are, however, complete and accurate for the periods they cover.
In the accompanying graph (fig. 5) the averages of all the readings of
the well for each week for five months are shown, and underneath them
the total weekly rainfalls for each of seven stations, Rolleston readings not
having been commenced. Zero for rainfall is made a sloping line, roughly
corresponding to the graph of the well, for the purpose of bringing the
rainfalls - graph near to that of the well, to facilitate comparison. To
simplify the figure, rainfalls are shown for only those weeks from which
conclusions may be drawn. The falls of Glenroy and Kirwee were identical
for the weeks shown, and therefore these two stations are represented by
only a single symbol — viz., dots and dashes.
Starting with the station nearest the mountains — viz., Springfield — if
the rainfall at Springfield (squares) for the week ending the 15th January
was responsible for the rise of the well shown for the week ending the
22nd January, then also the much heavier rainfall for the week ending
the 26th February must have been responsible for the almost imperceptible
rise for the week ending the 5th March. These two results are inconsistent,
and therefore it may be stated that the rainfall on which the well depends
does not fall at Springfield, nor does the water-bearing stratum tapped by
the well outcrop there. Similar inconsistencies may be noted for other
localities, as follows : — Hororata : In the week ending the 15th January a
rainfall of 1 in. is followed by a rise in the well of 1-5 cm., and on the 23rd
April a rainfall of 1\ in. is followed by a decline of 1 cm. Glenroy shows
inconsistencies for the weeks ending the 15th January and the 23rd April ;
Darfield for the weeks ending the 2nd and the 23rd April ; Kirwee for
the weeks ending the 15th January and the 23rd April ; and Lawford for
the weeks ending the 15th January and the 23rd April. But when we
come to examine the rainfall at Lincoln, and compare that with the subse-
quent rises, or arrests of the decline of the graph of the well, a remarkable
degree of consistency is disclosed. The graph of the static level of the
well is as nearly parallel to that of the Lincoln rainfall as could possibly
be expected under the circumstances, and, being given the rise of the well
due to the rainfall of the 15th January, the graph of the one could be con-
structed with reasonable accuracy from that of the other. From this it
is evident that the stratum tapped by the well outcrops in a district with
a rainfall during the months shown almost exactly equal to that of Lincoln.
None of the stations recording for me shows such an equality, and so
it seems evident that the water-bearing stratum under consideration out-
crops nearer to Lincoln than to the nearest of the stations. That station
is Lawford, nine miles away, and so one would probably be safe in saying
that the stratum of shingle 341 ft. under the surface at Lincoln reaches the
surface seven miles or less up the plains. This would place the outcrop
somewhere about Rolleston- — a district noted for its loose shingly soil,
directly underlaid by coarse gravels, with no interposing layer of clay.
Such country is absorptive of water in the highest degree, and an ideal
catching-area for an underground water-supply.
The surface of the land at Rolleston is 134 ft. above that at Lincoln.
The water-bearing stratum then rises 475 ft. in seven miles, or about 68 ft.
to the mile. The surface of the plains near their upper limit has a fall of
about 60 ft. to the mile, while between Rolleston and Lincoln it is onlv
Hilgendorf. — Artesian Wells in the Ghristchurch Area. 149
20 ft. to the mile. At the time that the fall on the surface of the plains
between Rolleston and Lincoln was 68 ft. to the mile- — that is, when our
water-bearing stratum was deposited — the whole plain must have had a
much steeper gradient than at present. This would probably be due to
the much greater supply of waste to the above-gorge waters of the rivers,
so that in those times the present plains would have been much more like
the present-day shingle fans than like plains. That the gradient of the
plains was once much steeper than now is proved by the high terraces round
Woodstock, and by Racecourse Hill, a residual shingle mound some 60 ft.
high. The cutting into their beds of the present rivers is merely a continu-
ation of the process of lessening the gradient of the plain, the bed of the
Waimakariri being virtually level with the plains at their lower edge, and over
300 ft. below them at their upper limit. It is therefore in accord with what
I suppose would be the expectations of geologists that at one time the surface
of the plains should be much more steeply inclined than now, but that the
supply of waste should be so great as to form a deposit sloping nearly 70 ft.
to the mile forty miles away from the gorge is perhaps noteworthy.*
It was stated above as evident that the collecting-ground for the. well
is nearer Lincoln than the nearest rainfall-station is. On the part of one
unacquainted with the country, a possible objection to this is that the
collecting-ground might equally well be more distant from Lincoln than
the farthest station is. The country between Springfield and the West
Coast, however, consists of mountains of greywackes and slates quite im-
pervious to water in large quantities, and, in any case, this water would
percolate out into the rivers flowing at the base of the mountains. The
amount of water in the Waimakariri is, moreover, a gauge of the amount
of rain falling on these mountains, and I have been so fortunate as to be
supplied with daily readings of the height of the river during several months.
Most of the floods that my records show occurred nearly contemporaneously
with considerable rainfalls on the plains, and the subsequent rises of the
well could not, therefore, be stated as dependent on, or independent of,
the rises in the river. On the 23rd March, however (see the arrow-head in
fig. 5), there was a heavy flood, sufficient to stop the mails at the Bealey,
but, as fig. 5 shows, there was no sign of any rise or arrest of the decline
of the well until rain fell in the second week after the flood.
Although it is impossible that the rain falling on the mountains shoidd
directly find its way into the water-bearing stratum tapped by the well, it
seemed quite possible that after reaching the river the water might percolate
into such a stratum where the river runs across its outcrop. This, indeed, is
probably the common opinion held ; but the observations made do not sup-
port the supposition, as far as the well at Lincoln goes. The observations on
* At the meeting at which this paper was read Mr. Speight pointed out that the
conclusion reached here is probably incorrect. His observations on the strata pierced
by wells near Christchurch shows that the deep-lying strata are at practically the
same slope as the present surface of the plana. It is a matter of common observation
that clay strata, though common near Christ-
//~SN church, disappear farther up the plains, and it
4, • y N^ it is probable that Rolleston marks the distance
from Lincoln at which the clay stratum over the
water- bear ing stratum fades away, rather than the
outcrop of a series of strata regular in thickness
from the base of the well to the outcrop. This
idea is shown in the accompanying diagrammatic
sketch, where the arrow-head .shows the position of Rolleston. Mr. Speight's in-
terpretation of the facts seems to me correct, and invalidates the conclusions above
drawn as to the former slope of the surface of the plains.
150
Transactions.
the height of the river were made with great care, readings being taken each
day to the nearest inch. On conipariosn with the graph of the static level
of the well no agreement could be observed in any case, and the perfect
indifference of the well to the flood on the 23rd March is typical of this.
Another possible objection to the placing of the outcrop at Rolleston
is that this has been done almost entirely on the slight rainfall at Lincoln
and the heavier rainfall at all other stations for the week ending the
23rd April. This is quite true ; but occasions on which the rainfall is
markedly different at different points on the plains are rare, and some
years of observations may be needed to secure a confirmation, by this
method, of the conclusion drawn. In the meantime, the accuracy of the
rainfall recorded at the various up-plain stations is sufficiently substantiated
by their mutual agreement, and the accuracy of the record at Lincoln by
comparison with that made by three other observers in the neighbour-
hood.
The Daily Fluctuation.
Even during long periods of steady decline or rise of the well its static
level showed comparatively large daily variations. On some occasions it
would rise 3 in. in twenty-four hours (without rain), and would fall by
the same or a greater amount by the succeeding morning. Variations of
2 in. on successive mornings were common, and usually the morning read-
ings showed variations of over 1 in. The irregularities of the static level
within short periods of time during which no rain fell led to an attempt to
correlate the variations in the well with those of the barometric pressure
of the air. At length it was found that by turning the barometer-readings
upside down and multiplying them by four a marked degree of harmony
between the graph of the well and that of the barometer was displayed — a
harmony so consistent as to establish the fact that the level of the water
in the well and that of the mercury in the barometer are influenced by the
same causes. The accompanying graph (fig. 6) shows this clearly.
Fig. 6.— Daily Readings of Well, Barometer, and Rainfall at Lincoln.
Hilgkndorf. — Artesian Wells in the Ghristchurch Area. 151
The graph of the well is shown by the full line, and its variations in
centimetres ; that of the barometer by a dotted line, and its variations in
inches. It will be observed that the scale for the well increases upwards,
and that for the barometer downwards ; further, the space between 29-82 in.
and 30-30 in. on the barometer scale (virtually Jin.) is the same as the space
between 86 and 82 on the well scale — that is, 4 centimetres (virtually 2 in.).
This means that the close agreement of the two graphs seen in fig. 6 has
been obtained by turning the barometer-readings upside down and multi-
plying by four, as above stated. Figure 6 is a portion of a graph that
was constructed for the whole year for the purpose of establishing the
agreement between the fluctuations of the well and the barometer.
The section 22nd March to 8th April was chosen for illustration because
it is fairly typical of the whole graph, and because there is no complication
due to rainfall. There were showers on the 29th, 30th, and 31st March,
and on the 1st, 3rd, 4th, and 6th April, but the three heaviest of these
were only 0-07 in., 0-08 in., and 0-09 in., and the remaining were 0-01 in.
each. These numerous rains, the greatest of which did not reach 0'1 in.,
cannot be suspected of influencing the graph of the well, since in any case
the well does not always rise after the rainfalls shown.
That a low barometer is accompanied by a rise in the static level of
shallow wells has been excellently demonstrated by F. H. King, and for
artesians is recorded in the following sentence occurring in an article by
Professor J. W. Gregory in the " Journal of the Eoyal Geographical Society "
for August, 1911, p. 171 : " The Hon. E. W. Lamb kindly tells me that an
increased flow has been observed in some of the wells of New South Wales
at times of low barometric pressure. The increased flow from springs when
the barometer is low is a well-known phenomenon which has been esta-
blished, for example, by the work of Mr. Baldwin Latham near Croydon.
The increase is no doubt due to gas-pressure, the gases dissolved in the
water expanding when the atmospheric pressure is reduced. Mr. Latham's
evidence therefore shows that gas-pressure acts even on wells of which the
flow is mainly determined by ordinary water-pressure."
I have examined this theory of the rise of wells under diminished
atmospheric pressure. It appears to assume that water is compressible,
or, at least, that the gases within the water are compressible. This, of
course, is not so. If the pressure is diminished the gases will remain
dissolved if the water is not already saturated with them, and if the
water is saturated the gases will come out of solution and form bubbles.
The water in the College well is saturated, containing 26-50 c.c. of gases
per litre at N.T.P., made up as follows : Carbon-dioxide, 1-07 c.c. per
litre ; oxygen, 4-29 c.c. per litre ; nitrogen, 21-14 c.c. per litre.
It must be further remembered that the volume of a gas absorbed
by water is independent of the pressure, since, although doubling the
pressure doubles the mass of the gas absorbed, the same doubling of
the pressure halves its volume. If, then, the pressure were suddenly
diminished the volume of gases liberated would be proportional to the
diminution of pressure, and if the gases remained in suspension in the
water the volume of the water would be increased.
Calculation shows that with a diminution of atmospheric pressure
from 30 in. to 28 in. of mercury — that is, from 15 lb. to 14 lb. per square
inch — the bubbles of gas liberated in this well 340 ft. deep would raise
its level by 1-8 in. By observation, the rise of the well under such a
barometric fall amounts to 8 in., and therefore the liberation of gases
152 Transact ions.
theory is insufficient to explain the fluctuations of the well with the
fluctuations of the barometer as observed at Lincoln.
In the above calculation it was assumed that the gas-bubbles formed
remained in the water, but since the changes in pressure are very
gradual, since the water is always flowing upward, and since one-third
of the total liberation of gases takes place in the top 30 ft., it is
evident that the bubbles of gas must escape, and therefore cannot raise
the level of the water anything like the 1-8 in. calculated above, much
less raise it the 8 in. recorded by the observations.
An explanation of the rise of the well with decrease of barometric
pressure more in accordance with the observed facts is as follows :
Water must continually be drawn away from the water-table at the
outcrop by the flow of water from the well, and more particularly the
flow at the lower outcrop of the stratum under the sea. Well-sinkers
find that the water runs in certain fairly defined streams in the water-
bearing strata, and at Islington is to be seen a very large and freely
moving underground stream running through the shingle at the bottom
of an open well 42 ft. deep. Small particles of sand have therefore
been removed from these strata, and the water can move freely ;
but the land over the water-table at the outcrop is not thus freed
from small particles, and, as the water is removed, the air has a diffi-
culty in following the water downwards, and so a partial vacuum is
set up over the water at the outcrop, after the manner of the pro-
duction of a Sprengel's vacuum. The water in the water-bearing stratum
and the water in the well-pipe now form the two arms of a water-
barometer, at the open end of which the observations are being taken.
Since the open end is being observed, the water goes up when the
mercurial barometer goes down ; since it is a water-barometer, it should
go up thirteen times as much as a mercurial barometer falls, but since
the vacuum at its closed end is not perfect its motion is not so great
as this. It goes up four times as much as the barometer goes down,
thus indicating that the vacuum over the water-table at the outcrop is
about one-third of a true vacuum — i.e., that the air-pressure amounts to
about 10 lb. instead of 15 lb. to the square inch.*
The Evening Rise.
That the well at the Museum in Christchurch is usually higher in
the evening than in the morning is noted both by Captain Hutton
(loc. cit.) and by Mr. Speight (lac. cit.). By both these writers it was
thought possible that this evening rise might be caused by the shutting-
off of other wells of the same stratum in the near neighbourhood in the
afternoon, although Mr. Speight is not inclined to accept this explana-
tion. That the shutting-ofl of adjacent wells causes any particular well
to rise is proved by Captain Hutton's observation that the Museum well
* This explanation met with a great deal of adverse criticism at the meeting at which
the paper was read. Mr. Hogg and Mr. Page suggested that changes of aerial pressure
would be felt directly by the water in the open pipe, but only slowly by the water at
the outcrop, owing to the fact that the air superincumbent on the water there is entangled
among particles of soil. This, 1 find, is also King's explanation (" The Soil," p. 180).
Warrington (" The Physics of the Soil," p. 129) appears to prefer the explanation
attributed to King in the present paper in the section on " The Evening Rise " — viz..
with a falling barometer the air in the soil expands, and the water filling the interstices
above the water-level h expelled, and causes a rise in the water-level of the soil. Either
of these explanations is perhaps sufficient to account for the fluctuations observed, but
I still regard my explanation as a possible, and even a probable, one.
HiliUkndork. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area.
153
was constantly higher on Sundays than on Saturdays and Mondays, and
that even a public holiday was accompanied by a decisive rise in the
well under observation. Mr. Dobson. Christchurch City Engineer, has
informed me that the installation of a city water-supply has been
followed by the breaking-out of springs in numerous places about the
city, and he explains this as follows : In the early days of the city's
life wells sunk on some of the higher ground had a static level of 1 ft
or 2 ft. above the ground. As more and more wells were sunk to the
same stratum, the static level was lowered ; those on ground a foot or
two lower continued to flow, but those on higher ground had their
static level reduced to below that of the ground, ceased to flow, were
abandoned and forgotten, and their mouths covered up. On the installa-
tion of the city supply many users of artesian water stopped their
flowing wells, the static level recovered itself, and the old abandoned
wells recommenced their flow, sometimes in such inconvenient places as
cellars, public parks, and important streets. The explanation seems
very probable, and emphasizes the interdependence of wells sunk to the
same stratum. Mr. Dobson further informs me that he on one occasion
fitted a pump to a particular flowing well, and started to work the
pump with a steam-engine, with the result that as long as the pump
was at work all the wells in the neighbourhood ceased to flow. It was
primarily to escape this interference of one well with others in its neighbour-
hood that I commenced observations on the comparatively isolated well at
Lincoln, and it was the evening rise that was the original object of the in-
quiry. As stated before, there are only four other wells of the same depth
as the College well within a radius of two miles ; the nearest of these is
three-quarters of a mile away, and I felt that I could secure from the owners
of all these wells any co-operation necessary for my observations.
The object for which the investigation was undertaken has, however, not
been accomplished, since no light has been thrown on the evening rise, except
that it does exist, and that it is not caused by the shutting-off of neigh-
bouring wells. Out of the fifty-one weeks during which the observations
have been made, the weekly averages of the evening readings have been
higher than those of the morning readings on thirty-six weeks, equal on
four weeks, and lower on eleven weeks. The following tabic shows the
averages of all the readings of each month, with the evening rise : —
Month.
Morning Reading.
Evening Reading.
Evening Rise.
January
101-21
101-60
0-39 cm.
February
95-08
95-20
0-12 cm.
March
88-47
88-66
0-19 cm.
April
82-10
82-40
0-30 cm.
May
75-60
75-80
0-20 cm.
June
95-10
95-30
0-20 cm.
July
104-30
105-20
0-90 cm.
August
130-16
131-36
1-20 cm.
September
136-84
137-11
0-27 cm.
October
137-97
137-92
- 0-05 cm.
November
134-38
134-80
0-42 cm.
Average
107-38
107-76
0-38 cm.
154 Transactions.
The evening rise is thus fairly well marked. During the months of
October and November I personally secured that all the wells in the
neighbourhood were running continuously, with the exception of one
(three-quarters of a mile away) which its owner was good enough to
shut off from 7 to 9 a.m. and 4 to 6 p.m. every day. The readings
during these two months were taken exactly at 8.30 a.m. and 5.30 p.m.,
so that the well had an hour and a half to recover any disturbance
that might have been set up by the well whose flow was intermittent.
That this intermittently flowing well could have any effect on the
College well, so far, away, is questionable, and, in any case, it was not
(even during the months I did not keep special control of it) usually
running in the morning or usually shut off in the afternoon. The inter-
ference of neighbouring wells may therefore be rejected as a cause of the
evening rise.
Any constant variations in temperature are similarly to be rejected.
I kept a record of the temperature of the flowing water just as it emerged
from the ground from the 10th to the 30th October. The temperature
varied from 12-81° C. to 12-90° C, and this variation was more probablv
due to the effect of the air on the stem of the thermometer than that
of the water on its bulb. In any case, the temperature never showed
any disposition to be regularly higher in the evening than in the
morning, and, if it had, a much greater rise of temperature would have
been needed to cause sufficient expansion of the water (inside an iron
pipe, on which the scale was carried) to account for the observed rise in
the static level. The water in the gauge-glass is, however, practically the
same water all the time, and therefore takes on to a considerable degree
the temperature of the atmosphere. It varied from 10-0° C. to 23-9° C.
during the month of October. The higher readings were, however, on
all but three occasions obtained in the morning, owing to the sun
shining on the gauge-glass and above-ground portion of the well-tube
in the morning and not in the evening ; indeed, the highest reading
(23-9° C.) was obtained in the morning, and on the same evening the
temperature was 12-0° C. In any case, an average evening rise of
temperature of about 25° C. would be needed to cause a 4 ft. column
of water (in a glass tube with an independent scale) to expand suffi-
ciently to accoimt for the observed rise in the static level. A shrinkage
of the wooden scale in the evening would also explain the rise ; but
means to detect and measure this, if it occurred, were not at hand, and
the fine of investigation held little promise. During the months of
October and November, also, records were kept of the barometric
pressure in the mornings and evenings, and it was found that the
readings were, on the average, lower in the evenings than the mornings.
The amount of the decrease in the barometric height in the evenings was
0-07 in., sufficient to account for a rise in the well of 0-56 cm., or more
than the actually observed rise. The barometric observations were, how-
ever, taken on an aneroid barograph, the mercurial barometer unfortu-
nately being out of repair. There is, I suppose, no question that the
temperature of a living-room is higher in the evenings than the morn-
ings, and I have rather good proof that increase of temperature de-
presses the record made by an aneroid barograph. The apparent fall of
the barometer each evening is, therefore, only a temperature effect, and
Hilgendokf. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area.
155
cannot be used to explain the rise of the well. This fact is emphasized
by the following graph (fig. 7), obtained in Invercargill in 1903 : it is
perhaps sufficiently striking to merit publication.
Bax"!
1
28.
iq
30.
r"*«.j 1.
1
WOO AT
i.
/wo
nfootr
i*aon
WOO*
MDC«
h'ccr
3a- so
V
39-1 S
«—
./
/
•
30 oo
v
L^
Fig. 7. — Barogram showing Depressions due to Rise in Tempera-
ture at Noon.
During a temporary absence from home I placed the barograph in a
window, so that an observer could read its records without entering the
house. The window happened to face north-north-west, and the sun fell
on the instrument just after midday. On each day the graph falls
nearly 0-25 in. as soon as the sun strikes the instrument, and it rises
again about 5 o'clock, when the sun passes off. The small fall of the
barometric pressure recorded for the evenings during the present obser-
vation is therefore not reliable, and cannot be used to explain the evening
rise of the well.
No explanation of this phenomenon can, therefore, be offered as the
result of these observations. Mr. Speight has suggested to me that it
might possibly be correlated with the expansion of the earth by the
heating effect of the sun, and the passing of an earth- wave or earth-
heave towards the sun as it sets, as explained by Milne. No observa-
tions or calculations have been made to test the probability of this
suggestion.
F. H. King (vide " The Soil," p. 162, &c.) found a morning rise in
his shallow wells, and this is explained by the fact that the soil-
temperature is highest in the morning, and that the expansion of the
soil-air expels some of the soil-water so that it reaches and raises the
water-table and thus the well. It is possible that observations might
show that at the outcrop of our water-bearing stratum the soil-tempera-
ture is higher in the evening, and this would explain the evening rise.
This is another of the numerous points on which no observations were
made.
(2.) The Museum Well.
This is a flowing well, 190 ft. deep, situated at the Canterbury Museum.
Christchurch. It is the deep well whose behaviour was recorded by
Captain Hutton (he. cit.), and Mr. Speight made further observations on
it during 1910 and 1911. I have worked up both Hutton's and Speight's
observations in the same way as I have my own, comparing them with
the barometer-readings, taking out weekly and monthly averages, &c, and
have found the following facts : (1.) The major fluctuations in the static
level of the well are small, the greatest annual variation recorded during
the two series of observations being 10^ in., as compared with 2 ft. 4 in. in
the Lincoln College well. (2.) Its level is changed by rain in the same
156
Transactions .
manner and to the same degree as in the Lincoln well, but there is a much
less decline in its static level during a similar period" of almost similar rain.
(3.) There is no sign of floods in the Waimakariri influencing the well.
(4.) There is no sign of agreement between the graph of the well and that
of the barometer, however the latter is manipulated. (5.) There is an
evening rise. Points (2) and (3) are illustrated by the following graph
(fig. 8), which is comparable to fig. 2, both graphs being on the same scale.
Fig. 8. — Weekly Averages of Height of Museum Well and Weekly Totals of
Rainfall at Lincoln (18W-95).
The want of agreement between the graph of the well and that of the
barometer may be explained either as the result of the Waimakariri assist-
ing the rainfall to supply the well, or as the result of the interference of
neighbouring wells. That such interference does take place has been shown
in a previous section.
The lack of pronounced decline during a comparatively rainless period,
and the smallness of the annual variation (10^ in.), opens up seriously
the question as to whether the Waimakariri does assist the supply of the
flowing wells in Christchurch. In favour of the rainfall being the sole
source of supply are the following facts : (1) The rise of the well after
rain ; (2) the absence of effect of even the greatest floods on the river
(see fig. 8 , 1st December) ; (3) the diminution of the static level of the
wells as each additional well is put down. The Museum well has fallen
4| ft. in fifteen years, and there is a generally expressed opinion that
all the wells in the town are similarly affected. This would be the
natural effect if there were a restricted supply of water, such as a rainfall
of 25 in. affords. If the lowering of the static level of the wells is an
indication of the lowering of the water in the water-table at the outcrop
(and it is difficult to suppose otherwise), then the wells in the town are
robbing the crops in the country of the supply of water that they should
receive by capillary rise, a matter of some importance on light shingly ground.
HlLGENDORF. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area. 157
It has been often asserted by myself, along with others, that it is incon-
ceivable that the rainfall should supply all the water outflowing at the
Christchurch wells, but I have made a calculation that, whatever its faults,
makes the case at least not inconceivable.
Population of Christchurch suburbs within the artesian areas
— i.e., from Sockburn to New Brighton and from Papanui
to the Port Hills— 86,661 (say) .. .. 90,000
Gallons of water used per capita per day, including hydraulic
lifts and cranes, street- and garden-watering- —
Auckland (1910) . . . . . . . . 58
Wellington (maximum) . . . . . . 60
Dunedin (maximum) . . . . . . 61 \
Say, average for Christchurch (where street-watering
comes from river) . . . . . . . . 60
Two rams at College lift water an average of 22^ ft., and
waste water is seven times that pumped. As this is
above average height, we may say proportion of water
used to that wasted . . . . . . . . One-tenth.
Then, total water drawn from artesians in Christchurch
90.000 x 60 x 11 x 365 x 10 _. _K1 __. J
area per vear = -^rsrrr^ •• 90,251, /o0 tons.
1 -.240 . « ;
Air oil- —
Population having been taken as from Sockburn to New
Brighton —
Length of catchment-area . . . . . . 10 miles.
First-stratum wells outcrop two miles up plain (Speight) :
d 3ep wells (450 ft.) outcrop about eight miles away ;
.'. width of catchment-area (about) . . . . 6 miles.
Average rainfall . . . . . . . . . . 25 inches.
1 in. of rain = in tons per acre . . . . . . 101
Then rain falling on catchment-area per year
= 10 x 6 x 640 x 101 x 25 . . . . 96,960,000 tons.
If there is any approximation to accuracy in this calculation, then
each additional well put down to any of the strata at present in use can
receive its water only by robbing its neighbours, a condition of affairs that,
in the upper strata has long ago been reached. As for the lower strata
they have probably not been largely drawn on so far, and there is every
reason to suppose that there are still lower strata available but still
untouched.
In favour of the Waimakariri assisting the water-supply are these
tacts : (1.) Water does undoubtedly percolate from the beds of some of
the rivers, as stated by Speight (loc. cit.), and I am able to add that near
Bealey a considerable amount of the Waimakariri flows underground.
This water is almost certain to leak into every porous bed, especially where
the thin deposit of silt that forms on the river's bed has been removed
by scour. (2.) The great degree of constancy of the Christchurch supply,
and the smallness of the annual variation in the Museum well during
the three periods it has been under observation. I should be inclined to
think that water from the river does assist the Christchurch wells in
some degree, but the Lincoln well in no degree ; but a longer period of
observations would be necessary to establish any opinion on the matter.
158
Transactions.
(3.) The Belfast Well.
This well is situated at the Canterbury Frozen Meat Company's works
at Belfast, ten miles north of Christchurch, and within a mile of the Wai-
makariri. The well was sunk in 1896, and is 96 ft. deep. It is not a
flowing well, but opens into a concrete sump, in which the water stands
about 4 ft. below the surface. Its construction seems to preclude any
surface drainage. Observations were made on it by Mr. L. P. Symes from
the 14th October to the 1st December, 1911. The controlling factor in-
fluencing its fluctuations seems to be the level of the Waimakariri, as the
following graph shows. The heights of the river are those noted at Bealey
on the day before they are entered on the graph, as the water in the river
takes eighteen hours to flow from Bealey to Belfast.
Fig. 9. — Graph of Well at Belfast (Full Line) in Centimetres, and of
Waimakariri (Dotted Line) in Feet.
Conclusions.
The well at Lincoln depends for its supply almost entirely on rainfall.
The wells in Christchurch depend on rainfall, probably assisted by percola-
tion from the Waimakariri. The wells at Belfast depend chiefly or entirely
on the Waimakariri. The rain supplying the wells of present depth falls
on the plains comparatively close at hand — say, within ten miles of the
town. The discharge from the wells probably lowers the water-table in
the country. The barometric pressure influences the wells.
At the close of a paper that is largely a compilation of the work of
others I have a long list of helpers to whom to offer thanks. Mr. Speight
and Mr. Symes have been good enough to offer valuable suggestions during
the course of the work. The Council of the Canterbury Philosophical Insti-
tute has voted money for apparatus. Many of the students at Lincoln
College. Mr. Speight, Mr. Symes, His Lordship Bishop Grimes, Mr. Crump,
and the verger of the Presbytery at Lincoln, have either taken well-
Hilgendorf. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area. 159
observations for me or definitely placed wells at my disposal. Mr. Gray has
supplied analyses of the gaseous contents of well-waters. Mr. W. Paine,
telegraphist at the Bealey, has made for me very careful measurements
of the height of the Waimakariri. The following have supplied me with
rainfall records either for short periods or for the whole year : Messrs. G.
Gray and G. Rennie at Lincoln, J. Brunton and R. Ellis at Rolleston.
Griffith Smith at Lawford, J. Wilson at Kirwee, J. Reid Wilson at Dar-
field, G. Hall at Hororata, W. Hall and G. C. Hunt at Glenroy, P. H.
Johnson at Mount Torlesse, and, finally, the Government Meteorologist for
several stations. Mr. Hogg was kind enough to make the calculation
concerning the alteration in the volumes of the dissolved gases under
changes of pressure, and Dr. Evans and Mr. McLeod to provide material
for apparatus. To all these I beg to offer my thanks, as without their
co-operation this paper could not have been written in its present form. I
have also to acknowledge the assistance given by the observations made by
the late Captain Hutton.
Art. XV. — A New Genus and some New Species of Plants.
By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of the Auckland Museum.
[Bead before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.]
1. Alectryon grandis Cheesem. sp. no v.
Arbor 15-pedalis et ultra ; ramulis sericeo- et ferrugineo-pubescentibus.
Folia pinnata, alterna, breviter petiolata, 22-30 cm. longa ; foliola 2-3-
juga, brevissime petiolata, late oblonga vel ovato-oblonga, obtusa vel
subacuta, 10-18 cm. longa, 5-9 cm. lata, praeter costam venasque pri-
marias plus minusve sericeo -pubescentia ; venis ultimis conspicue reticu-
latis, subtus elevatis. Flores ignoti.
Hob. — Cliffs on the north side of the Three Kings Islands ; a single
small clump alone seen. T.F.C.
This is the plant referred to at page 103 of the Manual under the name
of Alectryon excelsum var. grandis. Although no doubt existed as to its
being a distinct species, I have'deferred describing it as such, in the hope
that some visitor to the Three Kings Islands might return with flowering
specimens. But, as twenty -two years have elapsed since its original dis-
covery without producing any additional information, it seems advisable
to publish it without further delay. As the islands are now visited at
least once every year, I trust that the publicity drawn to the plant may
result in its rediscovery.
A. grandis can be distinguished from A. excelsum without the slightest
difficulty by the small number of leaflets to each leaf, and by their shape
and much greater size. In A. excelsum the leaflets are 2—4 in. long, and
are ovate-lanceolate in shape; whereas in A. grandis they are 4-7 in. in
length, and are broadly oblong or ovate-oblong. They are also firmer
in texture, and much more obtuse.
160 Transactions
2. Coxella Cheesem. et Hemsl. in Illustr. N.Z. Flora, t. 64 (ined.), nov.
gen.
Herba erecta. perennis, glabra. Folia pinnatim decomposita ; seg-
mentis linearibus, planis, flaccidis, non spinescentibus. Umbellae com-
positae, axillares. pedunculatae, in paniculam dispositae. Involucri bracteae
paucae, parvae, anguste lanceolatae. Flores albi. Calycis dentes promi-
nuli. Petala latiuscula, acumine brevi inflexo. Fructus late oblongus, a
dorso compressus, subequaliter 5-alatus ; alis latis, tenuibus, rnembranaceis.
Carpella a dorso valde compressa, altero 3-alato, altero 2-alato ; vittae
magnae. sub valleculis solitariae vel duae. Carpophorum 2-partitum.
Semen ad vittas sulcatum.
C. Dieffenbachii Cheesem. et Hemsl., I.e., species unica. Gingidium
Dieffenbachii F. Muell., Veg. Chat., 17, t. 1. Ligusticum Dieffenbachii
Hook. f.. Handb. N.Z. FL, 729. Angelica Dieffenbachii, Index Kew, 1, 133.
Aciphylla Dieffenbachii T. Kirk. Students' Fl., 211 ; Cheesem.. Man. N.Z.
FL, 214.
Hab. — Chatham Islands : Maritime cliffs ; now exceedingly scarce.
H. H. Travers ! F. A. D. Cox! Captain Dorrien Smith/
A very remarkable plant, of doubtful position. A glance at the
synonyms quoted above shows that it has been placed by turns in the
genera Gingidium, Ligusticum, Angelica, and Aciphylla. From the typical
Ligustica it differs markedly in the flattened and conspicuously winged
fruit, one carpel being 3-winged and the other 2-winged, or very rarely
both carpels may be 3-winged. The vittae are unusually large, and are
either 1 or 2 in the interspaces, with 2 or 3 on the commisural face. From
Angelica it is separated by the equally winged fruit, in the smaller number
of wings (or ribs), and in the number being unequal in the two carpels.
It has much of the habit of Aciphylla, although the leaves and bracts are
never spinescent, but differs in the flattened and winged carpels, and in
the smaller number of wings (or ribs) to each carpel, to say nothing of the
much larger vittae. Believing that it is best treated as a separate genus,
Mr. Hemsley and myself have given it the name of Coxella in the forth-
coming " Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora," in which a carefully
prepared plate with full analytical details will appear.
The name Coxella is used to commemorate the services to botanical
science of Mr. F. A. D. Cox, of Whangamarino, Chatham Islands. During
a lengthened residence in this outlying corner of the Dominion Mr. Cox
has regularly and consistently collected specimens of the flora of the
islands. These he has communicated to most New Zealand botanists,
accompanying them with much valuable information. It is largely through
his assistance in supplying material that our present knowledge of the
Chatham Islands florula is in such a satisfactory position.
In an interesting paper prepared by Captain Dorrien Smith, entitled
" An Attempt to introduce Olearia semi-dentata into the British Islands,"
published in the Kew Bulletin for 1910 (pp. 120-26), which contains
much information of value respecting the vegetation of the Chatham
Islands, Captain Dorrien Smith gives an account of a visit to the only
known locality for Coxella, near the south end of the main island. This is
accompanied by an excellent photograph of the plant in its natural habitat.
3. Coprosma neglecta Cheesem. sp. nov.
Ab C. rhamnoides differt caule prostrato, ramulis et petiolis dense et
breviter pubescentibus. foliis crassis et subcarnosis, baccis (immaturis)
oblongis.
Chbeskman. — New Genus and saint New Species of Plants. 161
Frutieulus prostratus, divaricatim ramosus ; ramulis validis dense
cano-pubescentibus. Folia parva, 10-15 mm. longa, 5-12 mm. lata, ob-
longa vel rotundato-oblonga vel orbiculata, obtusa, petiolata, crassa et
subcarnosa, marginibus recurvis, venis subtus conspicuis. Flores non visi.
Bacca (immatura) parva, oblonga, 5-6 mm. longa.
Hob. — North Island : On the faces of cliffs near the North Cape ;
January, 1896. T.F.C.
A much-branched prostrate shrub 2-5 ft. long ; branches wide-spread-
ing ; bark greyish-brown ; branchlets stout or slender, the ultimate ones
uniformly clothed with a fine greyish pubescence, which often extends up
the petioles to the main veins of the leaves. Leaves very variable in
shape and size, usually ^-^ in. long by £-^ in. wide, oblong or oblong-
spathulate to broadly oblong or orbicular, sometimes broader than long
and thus transversely oblong, obtuse, usually narrowed into a rather
slender petiole, but sometimes rounded or truncate at the base, thick and
somewhat fleshy, margins recurved, veins reticulated, conspicuous beneath.
Flowers not seen, but apparently terminating short lateral branchlets.
Drupe (immature) about i-£ in. long, oblong.
As a rule, it is not advisable to describe species of Coprosma unless
either good flowers or ripe fruit have been obtained. In this instance,
however, the creeping habit, slender branchlets clothed with a fine and
even greyish-white pubescence, the thick and fleshy broad obtuse leaves,
and the fact that the immature fruit is oblong are characters which in
combination remove it from all described species.
4. Myosotis Laingii Cheesem. sp. nov.
M. laetae simillima et forsitan ejus varietas, sed differt caulibus alti-
oribus et floribus multo majoribus.
Perennis, undique pilis albidis copiose vestitus. Rami floriferi graciles.
ascendentes, 30-45 cm. alti. Folia radicalia numerosa, longe graciliterque
petiolata, 7-15 cm. longa, supra et infra pilis albidis obsita ; folia caulina
minora, superiorum sessilia. Racemi terminales, pedunculati, simplices
aut rarissime furcati. Flores flavi, breviter pedicellati. Calyx elongatus,
cylindraceus, lobis linearibus. Corolla anguste campanulata, 16 mm.
longa, 10 mm. lata ; tubus cylindraceus, fauce gibbis emarginatis instructa.
Stamina 5, sub fauci affixa ; filamentis elongatis ; antheris majusculis,
linearibus.
Hob. — South Island : Kaikoura Mountains ; J. Buchanan! Wairau
Gorge; T.F.C. Lake Tennyson; 7?. M. Laingf Altitudinal range from
2,500 ft, to 4,500 ft.
Perennial, everywhere clothed with copious soft white hairs. Flower-
ing-stems several from the root, slender, decumbent below, erect above,
12-18 in. high. Radical leaves numerous, 3-6 in. long ; blade about half
the length, linear- or lanceolate-spathulate, obtuse or subacute, gradually
narrowed into the very long and slender petiole, membranous, both sur-
faces clothed with soft white hairs, midrib distinct. Cauline leaves much
smaller, the lower shortly petioled, the upper sessile. Racemes many-
flowered, usually simple, rarely forked. Flowers large, crowded, §-fin.
long, yellow, shortly pedicelled. Calyx long and narrow, 5-partite ; lobes
linear, acute. Corolla narrow-campanulate ; tube about half the length ;
throat with 5 emarginate scales ; limb large, deeply lobed, the lobes
oblong, obtuse. Stamens with slender elongated filaments, which are
inserted just below the scales ; anthers large, narrow-linear, reaching half-
way up the corolla-lobes. Ripe nutlets not seen,
tj — Trans.
162 Transact ion*.
Many years ago the late Mr. Buchanan gave me two specimens of this
plant, collected in some locality in the Kaikoura Mountains ; and I have
gathered what appears to be the same at the Wairoa Gorge. In the
Manual I included both of them with my M. laeta, although they ob-
viously differed in the much greater size of all their parts. I have now
received good recent specimens, collected by Mr. R. M. Laing, and from
their study have come to the conclusion that they represent a distinct
species, although closely allied to M. laeta. I have much pleasure in
associating the plant with the name of Mr. Laing, who is so well known
from his long-continued researches into the Algae of New Zealand.
5. Corysanthes Carsei Cheesem. sp. nov.
Ab C. unguiculata R. Br. differt floribus angustioribus, labello apiculo
minore, sepalo postico emarginato.
Planta perpusilla, acaulis, florifera 8-12 mm. alta. Folium solitarium,
membranaceum, ovato-cordatum, acutum, 6-10 mm. longum. Flos soli-
tarius, pro planta majusculus, horizontalis vel deflexus. supra folium sub-
sessilis. Sepalum posticum basi angustum, tunc lato-cucullatum. apice
incurvatum et emarginatum. Sepala lateralia parva, linearia. Label-
lum magnum, 10 mm. longum, orbiculatum, marginibus valde involutis.
Columna brevis. curvata.
Hab. — -North Island : Peaty swamps between Lake Tongonge and
the coast, Mongonui County ; H. Carse and H. B. Matthews I
A small delicate species, |— § in. high when in flower. Leaf sessile,
^— | in. long, ovate-cordate, acute, membranous. Flower sessile or very
shortly pedunculate, about | in. long, horizontal or denexed, dull-purplish
Upper sepal very narrow at the base, then suddenly expanded, so that
the upper two-thirds is broadly oblong and hood-shaped, extreme tip
incurved and emarginate and slightly thickened and papillose. Lateral
sepals placed under the lip, small, narrow-linear, 4-5 mm. long. Lateral
petals still smaller, 3 mm. long. Lip large, tubular, the margins involute,
meeting behind the column and enclosing it, orbicular or broader than
long when spread out, extreme tip produced into a minute projecting
lamina, between which and the overhanging emarginate tip of the upper
sepal is the only entrance to the front of the flower. Immediately inside
the entrance the surface of the lip is furnished with a broad patch of stiff
papillae all pointing towards the interior of the flower, and which is con-
tinued as a narrow band down the median line of the lip. At the base
of the lip the margins on each side are rolled up on themselves, thus
forming two minute circular openings leading to the base of the flower.
Column short, stout, curved. Capsule not seen.
This is a very curious little plant, closely allied to the Australian
C. unguiculata; but, judging from Mr. Fitzgerald's beautiful drawing,
that species has a much broader flower, the upper sepal is wider and not
incurved or emarginate at the tip, the projecting lamina at the apex of
the lip is much smaller, and the papillae within the lip are confined to the
median line, whereas they also form a broad patch to the right and left
of the median line in C. Carsei. There is also a relationship to C. Mat-
thewsii ; but, among other differences, it has a much narrower dorsal sepal,
and the lip wants the projecting lamina of C. Carsei.
The numerous additions made to the orchid flora of the North Cape
district by Mr. R. H. Matthews, and the discovery of the present species
by Messrs. Carse and H. B. Matthews, shows how much might be done
by careful investigation in most parts of the Dominion.
Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount Gar gill, Dunedin. 1(53
Art. XVI. — Some Rocks oj Mount Cargill, Dunedin.
By J. A. Bartrum. M.Sc,
Communicated by Dr. Marshall.
[Bead before the Otago Institute, 3rd October, 1911.}
In these notes an attempt will be made to describe a series of trachy-
dolerites and phonolites outcropping near the summit of Mount Cargill.
and, with them, such adjacent rocks as may be helpful in throwing light
on their origin.
A difficulty in arriving at the exact relationships of the rocks in this
district lies in the fact that bush and debris obscure a large portion of
country where outcrops are probable.
Several references to Mount Cargill rocks have been made by different
writers, notably Professors Ulrich and Park and Mr. C. A. Cotton, but
Professor Marshall's paper on the " Trachydolerites " * and that on the
" Geology of Dunedin "f gave the first comprehensive account of these rocks.
The standard types arrived at by Professor Marshall in the latter of these
two papers have been made full use of, and very much personal advice
and help has been given by Professor Marshall to the writer during the
preparation of this paper.
It is hoped that some of the information brought forward may help
to supplement previous knowledge of the rocks described.
General Geology.
The Mount Cargill rocks form part of the volcanic complex of the
Dunedin district. In several exposures the volcanic rocks overlie uncon-
formably the Caversham sandstone, a member of the Oamaru series, which
is generally referred to a Miocene age. J From the fact that volcanic rocks
apparently have been unaffected by the earth-movements that caused dis-
turbance of the Oamaru series, these former probably first were emitted
at a period later than that of the disturbance of the Oamaru beds. The
age of the earliest volcanic outburst must thus be at earliest post-Miocene.
That there are two main periods of volcanic activity in the Dunedin
area is evidenced by the occurrence of a conglomerate of volcanic material
overlying plant-beds that are unconformable to the Caversham sandstone. §
Professor Park considers the trachydolerites to belong to the first
period. || To this period he assigns a Pliocene age.^[ They were extruded
probably through trachytoid phonolites that have been described by Pro-
fessor Marshall** and Cotton, ff and that occupy a large area on Signal
Hill, about two miles south-east of Mount Cargill.
* Trans. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 10, 1904, p. 186 ; Dunedin.
t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 62, 1906, p. 381.
t Park, " Geology of New Zealand," p. 25.
§ Marshall, " Geology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 62, 1906, p. 390.
|| " Geology of New Zealand," p. 148.
II " On Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, 1904, p. 418.
** Loc. cit.
ft Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, 1909, p. 111.
6*
164 Transactions.
In describing a section exposed at the North Head, Otago Harbour,
Professor Marshall, in his paper " Geology of Dunedin," shows that the
phonolite was one of the earliest volcanics of the district. No definite
statement as to the period during which the trachydolerite eruption took
place can be made from the field evidence afforded by the outcrops of the
Mount Cargill area, beyond the fact that the trachydolerites are nowhere
overlaid by other lava-flows. Professor Marshall, remarking on this, and
on the additional fact that no pebbles of trachydolerite are found in con-
glomerates formed in the interval between the two peroids of eruption,
considers that the trachydolerites are amongst the latest of the Dunedin
rocks.
Physiography.
Mount Cargill lies about five miles north-east of the Town of Dunedin.
and forms a moderately well-rounded spur, rising to a series of sharp knobs
in the Main Peak (2,232 ft.), Butter's Peaks (2,040 ft.), and Mount Holmes.
There are several other less-prominent peaks at a lower elevation than
these. The main spur or ridge runs south-west from the Main Peak to-
wards Pine Hill, and on the south-east there is a gradual drop to the
saddle between Mount Cargill and Signal Hill. On the north there is a
steep bush-clad face leading down into the watershed of a stream draining
towards Waitati. On the west flattish slopes lead out to the Leith Valley.
From the south face of the Main Peak the North-east Valley Stream
drains, and has cut a well-rounded valley between the Mount Cargill and
Signal Hill ridges.
Occurrence of Eock Types.
From the Main Peak, looking north-east and east, three knobs are
prominent. The nearest one — an abrupt rocky knoll called Butter's
Peaks — is composed of a basic variety of trachydolerite and of a probable
nephelinitoid phonolite dyke. The Main Peak itself, a steeply cleft ridge,
running for about 10 chains in a north-east by east and south-west by
west direction, is composed chiefly of the general lava trachydolerite.
A far rocky peak to the north-east — Mount Holmes, or Remarkable
Rocks, by name — shows a splendid example of columnar structure in the
basalt of which it is formed. A good illustration of this outcrop is given
in Park's " Geology of New Zealand," p. 150. A quarter of a mile to the
south-east of this basalt peak is a knob called Mount Zion, with a lofty
precipitous face edging the Main North Road, and composed of a type
of trachytoid phonolite called by the type-name " Logan's Point." This
phonolite outcrops in a series of knolls for about a quarter to half a mile
in a south-west direction from Mount Zion.
In a south-west and west direction from the Main Peak the rounded
and flattish slopes stretching towards Pine Hill and the Leith Valley show,
in scattered outcrops, a comparatively unvaried type of trachydolerite.
On these slopes occasional rough hexagonal jointing is seen, and the dis-
position seems to add strength to the view of Professor Marshall that the
flow of the trachydolerite was from Mount Cargill towards Mount Flag-
staff.*
About a mile and a half south-west by south from the Main Peak, on
the upper portion of the Pine Hill slopes, is a profusion of large blocks
of rubble showing abundant large feldspathic and ferro-magnesian minerals
* " Geology of Dunodin," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. «2. 190(i, p. 407.
Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount CJargill, Dunedin. 165
on the weathering surfaces. This is hypabyssal trachydolerite. Near it
is also found abundant rubble of a basaltic or basanitic nature.
In a quarry on the road running from lower Pine Hill north-eastwards
along the southern slopes of Mount Cargill is a type of trachytoid phono-
lite similar to that occupying a large area on Signal Hill, and known as
the Signal Hill type. This phono lite runs south-west along the hillside
from the uppermost forks of the North-east Valley Stream, just below
the steep southern face of the Main Peak. Near these forks begins a
winding road towards the Junction School. Along this road hypabyssal
trachydolerite in large rubbly blocks is first met ; a space covered solely by
basaltic debris intervenes ; and then there is an outcrop of basaltic scoria.
Fragments of the so-called " Junction basalt" are found plentifully all around,
and shortly the solid rock is exposed in a shallow quarry near this road.
On a knoll about 1,200 ft. high, about a quarter of a mile north-east
of the scoria outcrop, a fresh basanitic rock is found in plentiful rubble.
No outcrop was discovered.
Basaltic and basanitic rocks, and also a nephelinitoid phonolite, out-
crop in the valley of the North-east Valley Stream, below the forks men-
tioned above. The last-mentioned rock is of a peculiar type, and seems
to be the same nephelinitoid phonolite that occurs in the North-east Valley
quarry, about a mile and a quarter down-stream from the upper outcrop.
Basaltic rubble is extensive on the hillside north-west of the North-east
Valley tannery. No recognizable outcrops were found, and its relation
to the Signal Hill phonolite cannot definitely be determined.
PETROLOGY.
DESCRIPTION OF ROCK TYPES.
A. Trachydolerites.
(a.) General Lava Trachydolerite.
In hand-specimen this is a heavy greyish-black fine-grained rock show-
ing fairly prominent feldspar and, in places, pyroxene crystals. It breaks
with a rough fracture. Feldspar and pyroxene show up prominently on
weathering surfaces. This rock is described by Professor Marshall in his
paper on the Dunedin trachydolerites.*
The microscope shows a base of irregular feldspar laths, with enmeshed
aegirine-augite and other crystals, enclosing moderately abundant pheno-
crysts.
A porphyritic character is shown by the feldspar, and to a less extent
by the nepheline and pyroxene. v
The phenocrysts are sanidine, augite (chiefly of various brownish tints),
resorbed hornblende, sodalite. nepheline, olivine, and occasionally aegirine-
augite and anorthoclase.
The commonest phenocrysts are those of augite.
The sanidine shows marked corrosion, and its margins are usually
dentate with aegirine-augite. Its twinning is by the Carlsbad law. The
extinction in many cases is parallel to well-marked cleavage, and in some
idiomorphic sections to the edge between the faces 100 and 010. The
crystals are usually small, but are found up to 5 mm. by 4 mm. in size.
Clear glassy crystals are character isitic, but both liquid and aegirine-augite
inclusions are common.
* Trans. Aust. Assn. Adv. Sci., vol. 10, 1004, p. 183.
166 Transaction* .
A few irregular biaxial interference figures were obtained, but no sec-
tions were found suitable for definite optical tests.
Anorthoclase occurs in occasional phenocrysts, especially in the rocks
from the upper Pine Hill slopes. The fine indefinite pericline and albite
cross-twinning is characteristic.
Oligoclase occurs in a few crystals. It is recognized by its albite twin-
ning, with a low extinction-angle on either side of the twinning-plane.
In one case sodalite is included in a crystal of sanidine.
The nepheline phenocrysts are large and fairly plentiful. Character-
istic hexagonal cross-sections are not uncommon, but corrosion has been
active as a general rule. In some sections no nepheline of the first
generation appears ; in others, especially in those from rocks towards
Pine Hill, the mineral is comparatively coarse and plentiful.
Sodalite is plentiful. A few large sharply idiomorphic forms, simulating
hexagonal cross-sections of nepheline, are present, but the characteristic
sodalite crystal is irregular and flaky.
Olivine generally is a most plentiful phenocryst. The crystals are
large, fresh, and rounded. A " celyphitic " structure, in which pale
pinkish-brown augite and iron-ore form a " corona " around the olivine,
is marked. Where the olivine has not this corona it shows typically a
corrosion border of magnetite dust and a deep fringe of aegirine-augite
granules.
Resorbed amphibole is a constant and characteristic phenocryst. All
stages of resorption are exhibited. The cross-sections of even the wholly
resorbed mineral show characteristic shape and prismatic angles. The
unresorbed mineral shows intense pleochroism, in colours varying from
deep brown to golden-yellow. In some sections, particularly those from
rocks near the outcrop of hypabyssal trachydolerite, amphibole, next to
augite, is the most abundant of the minerals of the first generation. This
amphibole has been classed tentatively as barkevicite.
The occurrence of pyroxene is most commonly in glomeroporphyritic
phenocrysts of a pinkish-brown variety of augite. The cleavage is cha-
racteristic. Both simple and polysynthetic twins are common. Zonal
structure is noticeable.
This pyroxene was more or less unstable in the original magma, and.
though of idiomorphic outline, is almost always edged by a border of
aegirine-augite.
A purplish-violet pleochroic augite is found rarely in well-shaped
crystals. The pleochroism is — parallel to c deep purplish-violet, and parallel
to a and b greyish-violet.
A rare deep-green to golden-yellow pleochroic pyroxene is ascribed to
aegirine or aegirine-augite. It shows good augitic cleavage on basal
sections. Two or three crystals of this mineral are of large size (2 mm.
by 3 mm.), and include abundant prisms of apatite and squares of
magnetite. They indicate by their irregular boundary that either they
themselves have been resolved, or that the aegirine-augite and magnetite
are the resorption-products of an earlier mineral. The constant associa-
tion of aegirine-augite and magnetite with resorbed amphibole strengthens
the supposition that these two minerals are the resorption-products of the
amphibole.
In one case a pale-green augite crystal includes one of olivine.
Magnetite is infrequent otherwise than as a resorption-product.
Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount Car gill, Dunedin. 167
The Ground/mass.
A network of predominant feldspar wraps around plentiful pale-green
aegirine - augite granules, a little fine nepheline, and a little iron -ore.
The feldspar, as a general rule, is in poorly shaped untwinned laths.
Fluxional arrangement is rare. There is a little polysynthetically
twinned plagioclase feldspar also present. The iron-ore is chiefly magne-
tite in small squares, but ilmenite is also present.
The nepheline is only distinguished by staining the sections. It is in
minute hexagonal forms.
No cossyrite was observed in the many sections prepared of this rock,
but there is an abundance of the mineral in a similar trachydolerite from
Mount Flagstaff.
The granules of aegirine-augite are always irregular, and at times
simulate a mossv structure. Apatite forms stout though never plentiful
Pnsms- Order of Crystallization.
Some of the relations are uncertain, but the probable order is (1) olivine ;
(2) apatite ; (3) amphibole ; (4) augite ; (5) sodalite ; (6) sanidine, nephe-
line, with possibly anorthoclase and oligoclase, and then, in the ground-
mass, iron-ore, aegirine-augite, nepheline, and feldspar, in the order named.
Sections of a transition type of trachydolerite come from a little east
of the Main Peak. Olivine, in coarse, aggregates of fresh rounded crystals,
with a corrosion border of magnetite dust and aegirine-augite granules,
is very common. Pinkish augite has been corroded, and is edged by
aegirine-augite. Large crystals of resorbed amphibole are rare, but the
mineral may be represented by numerous small groups of secondary mag-
netic material. Feldspar sometimes encloses this magnetite. Nepheline
is rare. There is a little very opaque cossyrite.
The groundmass is very dense and fine-grained ; it exhibits occasional
flow structure. Feldspar continues to be more important than the aegirine-
Ohemical Characters.
Two analyses of the trachydolerite from two different localities are
appended, and with them, for purposes of comparison, two other analyses.
Si02
A1203
Fe203 . .
FeO
MgO
CuO
K20
Na20 . .
H20
CI
P205 . .
A.
B.
C.
D.
50-43
49-02
51-86
50-06
18-00
19-50
19-87
17-00
3-78
4-37
6-30
2-96
5-65
6-60
311
5-42
2-91
214
2-33
3-61
5-76
6-78
3-77
8-14
4-79
1-70
6-20
3-40
5-76
7-35
4-88
3-53
1-37
1-18
1-48
4-85
0-38
Not det,
0-51
MuOO-14
Not det.
Not det.
0-36
0-66
Not det,
Not det.
Not det.
0-51
Ti02
98-83 98-64 100-67 100-28
A. Trachydolerite, Main Peak, Mount Cargill. (Analysis, J. Bartrum.)
B. Trachydolerite, near Pine Hill. (Analysis, J. Bartrum.)
C. Trachydolerite, Dr. P. Marshall.*
D. Shoshonite, Yellowstone National Park.f
* " Geology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. (ieol. Soc, vol. 62, 1906, p. 407.
+ Rosenbvpch, '' Elemente dev Gesteinslehre," p. 355, No. 13, 1901 ed.
168 Transactions.
There is seen to exist a certain similarity in chemical composition
between the trachydolerites and the alkali basalts. This is not borne out
by the petrological and mineralogical characters, in which the trachy-
dolerites approach closely to the phonolites of the adjoining area. The
analyses, to be given later, of these phonolites show also how closely they
merge into the trachydolerites in chemical characters.
(b.) Hypabyssal Type of Trachydolerite.
Two areas show extensive rubble of this rock — the one on Pine Hill,
and the other near the headwaters of the North-east Valley Stream. It
was not found actually in, situ, but so great a heap of angular blocks as
there is on Pine Hill is not likely to have travelled far.
The differences from the lava type are mainly textural. and are.
indeed, few.
In hand-specimen large pyroxene, amphibole, and feldspar crystals are
conspicuous. The feldspar and soda-pyroxene are porphyritic. Olivine,
nepheline, and sodalite are less plentiful than in the lava type, but feld-
spar is more so. The corrosion of the feldspar is a noticeable feature.
The pyroxene is chiefly a pleochroic green soda-bearing variety of
augite, or aegirine-augite. A little pink faintly pleochroic augite is also
present. The aegirine-augite is usually idiomorphic.
Resorbed hornblende in places includes a little feldspar.
In the groundmass the aegirine-augite is less important than the feld-
spar, and is less mossy than in the general lava rock. The plagioclase
feldspars — varying between oligoclase and acid andesine — also much increase
their importance.
The main features of the type are the increased size of the phenocrysts
in general and the more open nature of the groundmass.
(c.) Dense Basic Type of Trachydolerite.
In hand-specimen this rock' is indistinguishable from the dense green
nephelinitoid phonolites and tinguaites common in the Dunedin district.
It has a leek-green very fine-grained matrix, in which are a few prominent
crystals of feldspar and pyroxene. Many variations of a minor nature
are exhibited by the rocks included in this class.
Under the microscope the distinguishing features are — (1) scarcity
or lack of nepheline in the groundmass ; (2) abundance of aegirine-augite
and small amount of feldspar in the groundmass ; (3) the dense nature
of the groundmass ; (4) typical scarcity of phenocrysts.
The relative importance of the different phenocryst minerals varies
from section to section.
An interesting feature is the occurrence of small rounded leucite crystals
with characteristic radial inclusions of aegirine-augite. Another pecu-
liarity lies in the alteration (or, may be, corrosion) of the olivine pheno-
crysts. These have been more or less wholly replaced by a clear colourless
secondary mineral and magnetite dust. The fibrous nature and other
characters of this secondary mineral seem most characteristic of serpentine.
A bluish-green chloritic mineral is sometimes connected with this alter-
ation of the olivine.
Sharply idiomorphic, fresh olivine crystals are, however, not uncommon.
There is an occasional corona of augite and magnetite to the olivine.
Phenocrysts of feldspar are less common than those of the ferro-
magnesian minerals ; of them, sanidine is the commonest, but anorthoclase
Bartrum:. — Rocks of Mount Gargill, Dunedin,
169
also occurs in a few large crystals The feldspars exhibit the same round-
ing as in the general trachydolerite, but the edges are sharply defined.
Pyroxene and brown amphibole also form phenocrysts. The pyroxene
is generally idiomorphic pale-pinkish to pale-greenish-pink augite. It is
commonly fringed by dust-like aegirine-augite. Aggregates of pinkish
augite are common.
In some sections nepheline forms important large well-shaped crystals.
Sodalite in small flaky forms is moderately abundant. The augite includes
a few apatite prisms.
The impenetrable nature of the groundmass is given it by the felted
dust-like granules of aegirine-augite. Typically, no cossyrite is present ;
but in a few sections, where the density of the groundmass is not so
marked as in typical sections, a few opaque-brown dendritic growths may
be of this mineral.
A few minute feldspar needles are scattered throughout. Staining
detects nepheline in the mesh of aegirine-augite dust in minute rare hexa-
gonal and square forms.
Magnetite is very scarce, unless it occurs with aegirine-augite as a
resorption-product of amphibole.
Chemical Characters.
An analysis was made of this type, and comparison with the two other
analyses appended shows how closely it agrees chemically with both the
trachydolerites and the trachytoid phonolites.
A.
B.
C.
Si02
54-24
56-19
55-10
A120, .
18-08
20-25
19-25
Fe203 .
2-18
2-76
2-77
Feb
3-53
2-32
1-66
MgO
0-88
112
0-83
CaO
5-01
4-30
5-14
K20 .
5-01
4-19
4-68
Na20 .
7-29
6-33
741
H20 .
1-79
0-65
2-19
CI
0-63
. .
MnO 0-32
Ti02
. .
0-57
0-48
SO,
. .
0-09
, ,
p2o5
0-54
0-41
98-64 99-47 100-46
A. Basic type of trachydolerite, Butter's Peaks, Mount Cargill. (An-
alysis, J. Bartrum.)
B. Trachydolerite from Columbretes, Spain.*
C. Tracytoid phonolite.|
(d.) Nephcliniloid Type of Trachydolerite.
In hand-specimens this rock is indistinguishable from the preceding
basic type.
Within a few yards in the field this type merges, in successive vari-
ations, from the general trachydolerite to true nephelinitoid phonolite.
* Rosenbusch, " Elemente der Gesteinslehre," p. 355, No. 4, 1901 ed.
t Rosenbusch, loc. cit., p. 292, No. 4.
170 Transactions.
Thus field relations give no help in drawing distinctions between different
petrological types, but indicate that the origin of all is differentiation of
the one magma. There is. however, a possible exception to this, for an
outcrop of nephelinitoid phonolite on Butter's Peaks may be a dyke.
Under the microscope the chief feature of the type is the nephelinitoid.
or cellular, structure of the groundmass, due to the numerous minute
hexagons of nepheline seen under moderate magnification.
The phenocrysts are typically allotriomorphic ; the most common are
pinkish-brown augite, sodalite, sanidine, nepheline, and olivine.
The nepheline is large and well-shaped, but is crowded with minute
liquid inclusions. The crystals of sodalite are very large, and are usually
crowded with minute gaseous inclusions ; they show good dodecahedral
cleavage.
Sanidine is clear and glassy, but exhibits shadow extinction. A few
characteristic anorthoclase phenocrysts occur.
Olivine has either a dense corona of aegirine-augite with magnetite, or
else a corrosion fringe of aegirine-augite and magnetite dust.
Pleochroic aegirine-augite is shown in a few well-shaped crystals that
have suffered slight resorption, and have been edged by the common
pinkish augite. This latter variety sometimes encloses resorbed amphibole,
showing that it did not separate out till after, or was connected with, the
resorption of the amphibole.
The groundmass is holocrystalline but fine-grained, and generally similar
in minerals to that of the other types of trachydolerite.
Aegirine-augite in mossy granules is dominant ; if often assumes a
lath shape, and then shows more or less parallel alignment.
In sections of those rocks that, both petrographically and in field
occurrence, approach the nephelinitoid phonolites cossyrite occurs plenti-
fully, but is absent in other sections, unless some minute opaque dentritic
growths can be referred to this mineral.
Feldspar is moderately important, and enwrapping laths show up
amongst the numerous minute hexagonal forms of nepheline. Very little
magnetite is present ; there are a few scattered flakes of sodalite.
No analysis of this rock was made.
B. Nephelinitoid Phonolite.
As would be expected, in certain places this rock merges closely into
the type of trachydolerite just described. In several sections segregations
or inclusions of the basic trachydolerite previously described are very
typical. They average about 7 mm. in diameter, and are most probably
of the nature of segregations.
Leucite again appears as a subsidiary mineral. It is difficult to dis-
tinguish it from numerous other rounded isotropic forms that are judged
from their ready gelatinization with dilute acid, and from the high percent-
age of chlorine in the rock, to be sodalite. The leucite is in small rounded
or idiomorphic shapes, and commonly shows characteristic radial arrange-
ment of included aegirine-augite granules.
In hand-specimen this rock is very similar to the dense basic variety
of trachydolerite, but has a somewhat lighter colour and greasier appearance.
It weathers very readily.
Under the microscope true phenocrysts are rarely seen, unless in the
proximity of the basic inclusions, where pink augite and olivine especially
are common.
Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount Car (/ill, Dunedin.
171
The phenocrysts are of sanidine, of brownish-pink augite, of almost
•ompletely resorbed amphibole, of sodalite, and occasionally of nepheline.
Sanidine is the most common ; it is usually markedly corroded, but
occasional good idiomorphs show up. Carlsbad twinning is common.
When nepheline occurs it is in very large crystals ; sodalite is in numerous
rounded and flaky forms.
Pinkish-brown augite not infrequently forms an outgrowth to resorbed
hornblende. One or two deep-green pleochroic and idiomorphic aegirine-
augite phenocrysts are present.
Under moderate magnification the groundmass exhibits a prominent
nephelinitoid, or cellular, structure. The nepheline of these clear cellular
portions is in minute hexagonal cross-sections.
Highly pleochroic aegirine-augite and cossyrite aggregates are scattered
regularly and fairly plentifully in the nepheline base. All branching
portions of these aggregates are in crystalline continuity, and extinguish
together. The pleochroism of the cossyrite is from bright reddish-brown
to brownish-black, and of the aegirine-augite from deep grass-green to
greenish-yellow. The identification of the cossyrite is based on its descrip-
tion in this and similar rocks of the district by Professor Marshall. No forms
approaching idiomorphism were found on which to apply optical tests.
In portions only of certain sections feldspar shows up well in minute
needles that have rough parallelism, but elsewhere it is relatively scarce.
There are a few scattered granules of magnetite.
From the east end of Butter's Peaks one section made was found to
differ from the others, and to present an undoubted nephelinitoid phonolite.
It probably represents an unimportant local variation of the general basic
trachydolerite. Cossyrite is very scarce in this section ; it is in minute
dense growths. The aegirine also is very dense, and is of much less import-
ance than in the typical nephelinitoid phonolite. Nepheline forms almost
the whole of the predominant clear base of the groundmass.
Chemical Characters.
The analysis made of this Mount Cargill nephelinitoid phonolite shows
a close agreement with that of the nephelinitoid phonolite represented
by analysis B.
Si02
A1203
Fe203
FeO
MgO
CaO
K20
Na20
H20
CI ..
Mn02
P205
A.
B.
54-88
55-01
22-80
21-67
3-66
1-95
3-26
1-86
0-38
0-13
2-24
212
3-65
3-54
7-53
9-78
0-91
217
0-63
0-08
. .
0-22
0-04
99-94
99-41
A. Nephelinitoid phonolite from Butter's Peaks, Mount Cargill. (An-
alysis, J. Bartrum.)
B. Nephelinitoid phonolite from Hohentwiel, Hegau.*
* Rosenbusch, " Elemente der Gesteinslehre," No. (i, p. 292, 1900 ed.
172 Transactions.
A nephelinitoid phonolite that has probably intruded earlier basanites is
found in a small quarry alongside a branch track that leaves the North-east
Valley to Junction School Road, and follows up the North-east Valley Stream.
The phenocrysts, which are almost entirely sanidine in Carlsbad twins
and a little bright emerald-green to yellowish-green aegirine-augite, are
sharply idiomorphic. The groundmass is chiefly nepheline in small hexa-
gonal forms. Deep-green mossy aegirine-augite aggregates and flakes of
sodalite are also very plentiful.
This rock is similar to, and possibly the same as. the nephelinitoid
phonolite that is quarried lower down-stream in the North-east Valley
quarry.
C. Trachytoid Phonolites.
No hard-and-fast line can be drawn between the nephelinitoid and
some of the trachytoid phonolites of Mount Cargill. These latter phono-
lites present in the Mount Cargill area fall under two types, named respec-
tively " Logan's Point " and " Signal Hill " by Professor Marshall in his
paper " Geology of Dunedin," referred to previously.
The more important on Mount Cargill is the Logan's Point type, which
forms Mount Zion and other knolls, and through which the Mount Holmes
basalt and the trachydolerites have probably been forced. The Logan's
Point is probably earlier than the Signal Hill type of trachytoid phonolite.
Cotton, in a paper, " Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin,"* brings forward
evidence that supports this view.
The apparent succession of types in the Mount Cargill area will be dealt
vith later.
(a.) Logan's Point Type of Trachytoid Phonolite.
In the hand-specimen this is a dull leek-green fine-grained rock, showing
a few sanidine phenocrysts. Its field outcrop shows a platy structure.
Under the microscope practically no phenocrysts appear beyond a few
poorly shaped corroded ones of sanidine, and a few of pleochroic aegirine-
augite and resorbed amphibole. Cossyrite and aegirine-augite, both in
the allotriomorphic mossy growths common in the allied Mount Cargill
rocks, are evenly and plentifully distributed in the groundmass in a clear
base of nepheline and feldspar. The pleochroism of both minerals is the
usual pleochroism noted already.
The feldspar of the groundmass is typically allotriomorphic, and, as
well as enwrapping the aegirine-augite and cossyrite, encloses in its most
intimate meshes minute nepheline crystals that often are only distinguished
by staining-tests. In other sections an abundance of nepheline causes a
cellular structure of the groundmass.
Occasionally the feldspar of the base shows good fluxional arrange-
ment ; the laths then prominent are polysynthetically twinned, and are
referred, on their extinction-angles, to oligoclase. When the greater part
of the base shows this structure the rock merges into the Signal Hill type.
Similarly, where the base is highly nephelinitoid the rock verges on the
nephelinitoid phonolites. This is particularly the case in sections from a
small conical knob near Butter's Peaks.
In the Logan's Point rock magnetite is absent ; a few prisms of apatite
are included by aegirine-augite.
In a section made from an outcrop of this type near Butter's Peaks
large phenocrysts of olivine and pinkish augite were found. Partial resorp-
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, 1909, p. 111.
Barthum. — Rocks of Mount Cargill, Dunedin.
173
tion has effected a rounding of these crystals, and an edging of aegirine-
augite.
Unless these minerals have been caught up from elsewhere, their occur-
rence shows that a close relationship to the trachydolerites exists.
Comparison with other Logan's Point trachytoid phonolites shows that
the rock from Logan's Point itself is much denser and has less mossy cossy-
rite and less idiomorphism of the feldspar phenocrysts. There are no
feldspar phenocrysts, but abundant intensely green almost unpleochroic
pyroxenes, in a trachytoid phonolite from the foot of the North-east Valley
to Junction School Road.
In the same type of rock from the North Head there are conspicuous
phenocrysts of sanidine, but none of aegirine-augite. The nepheline of
the groundmass can only be detected by staining.
A knob on Signal Hill, above Burke's, is composed of a rock almost
identical with that of Mount Cargill : few or no feldspars show up in the
first generation.
Chemical Gha meters.
An analysis of the Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite is compared
below with analyses of similar rocks.
Reference to the analyses of nephelinitokl phonolites on page 171 will
show how closely the Mount Cargill Logan's Point phonolite resembles in
chemical composition the nephelinitoid types.
A.
SiO, . . . . 56-12
21-32
2-59
3-29
0-56
2-30
4-81
5-79
1-54
0-34
A1,03
Fe203
FeO
MgO
CaO
K20
Na20
H20
CI
B.
C.
56-8
57-00
19-7
18-56
2-2
4-58
3-7
2-76
0-4
0-41
2-2
1-05
7-1
6-13
4-3
6-34
2-5
2-96
98-66
98-9
99-79
A. Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite. Mount Zion, Mount Cargill,
Dunedin. (Analysis by J. Bartrum.)
B. Trachytoid phonolite from East Lothian, Scotland.*
C. Trachytoid phonolite from Logan's Point. f
(1).) Signal Hill Trachytoid Phonolite.
This rock does not occupy any important area on Mount Cargill itself,
but is extensive across the North-east Valley, on Signal Hill, and also
covers a large portion of Pine Hill. Occasional sections cut from the
Mount Zion phonolite show examples of this type, but these seem to be
far from typical.
Basalts apparently underlie this rock towards the headwaters of the
North-east Valley Stream. This agrees with the succession described by
Professor Marshall at the North Otago Head.:!:
* Rosenbusch, " Elemente tier Gestemslehre," p. 292, 1901 ed.
f Marshall, "Geology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 62, Aug., 1906,
p. 402.
X " Geology of Dunedin,'' Quart. .Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 61, 1906, p. 41S.
174 Transactions.
Macroscopically the Signal Hill phonolite is a greasy green fine-grained
rock of platy nature, showing occasional feldspar crystals.
Under the microscope there is a noticeable scarcity of phenocrysts as
compared with the typical rock from Signal Hill. In the rock outcropping
in the North-east Valley Stream, however, there are plentiful conspicuous
amphiboles up to \\ in. by £ in. in size. Resorption of this amphibole
is noticeable, and its pleochroism is marked — a, pale golden-yellow;
t>, rich brown ; c, dark opaque-brown. Though the tests made were
scarcely satisfactory, apparently c A h = 6°. A = d, B = b, and mineral
is positive. This amphibole is probably barkevicite, and it is considered
that it is the same as that in the various other allied rocks of Mount Cargill.
Sanidine, in much corroded crystals of small size, is persistent, but
never plentiful. There are occasional corroded crystals of anorthoclase,
of oligoclase, and of a more basic feldspar that is apparently andesine.
The only other phenocrysts are small scarce ragged crystals of greenish
and pink augite.
The groundmass is the most characteristic feature of the type.
A dense web of small feldspar laths, showing remarkable flow structure,
constitutes the greatest part of the groundmass, and entangles fairly
plentiful augite granules, very minute nepheline prisms, and a little
scattered magnetite.
Most of the augite is the greenish soda-bearing variety, but in many
.sections pink augite also is common.
The chief feldspar of the groundmass is sanidine.
Cossyrite is absent.
The typical rock from Signal Hill shows in comparison with the above
an abundance of resorbed amphibole and of coarse feldspars, amongst
which oligoclase and anorthoclase are prominent. A little serpentinized
olivine also is present.
No chemical analysis of this rock was made.
D. Basalts.
Of three main basaltic areas to be described, the most important is
the old neck of Mount Holmes. There a good example of columnar joint-
ing is shown. The disposition of the columns is irregular, but indicates
that the vent from which the basalt flowed was of the nature of a fissure.
This Mount Holmes basalt has apparently burst its way through the
Logan's Point phonolite outcropping on Mount Zion.
A basalt covers a considerable area near the Junction School, and is
the same as that described from there by C. A. Cotton.* Mineralogicallv
it agrees with the Mount Holmes basalt, but. as one would expect, textural
differences are marked. It is very probable that this lava flowed from
the former vent of Mount Holmes.
A basaltic-scoria bed of an amygdaloidal nature is found on a branch
road leading north-west from the junction School, and apparently is part
or the surrounding Junction basalt.
On a knoll close to the west side of the Main North Road, about half
a mile north-west of its junction with the Port Chalmers Road, is a diffe-
rent type of basaltic rock. It is similar in general characters to basanites
found to the north-east of the district. Professor Park, in his paper on
the geology of North Head. YVaikouaiti.f mentions Mount Cargill as the
* " Geology of Signal Hill," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 4J, 1909, p. 121.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, J 90.3, pp. 423, 424.
Bartrum.. — Rocks of Mount Gargill, Dunedin,
175
probable point of origin of basanitic pebbles found in gravels at Mount
Cronin. It is uncertain whether this supposed basanite is that recorded
by Professor Ulrich from the Mount Cargill area.
A similar rock is found in the vallev of the North-east Vallev
Stream above where it strikes in a northerly direction away from its
previous course alongside the North-east Valley Road.
After some difficulty, staining-tests made on these rocks showed a few
small crystals that may be nepheline. As, however, some undoubted
olivine had gelatinized and absorbed the stain, there is doubt as to this
identification. For this reason these rocks are only tentatively classed
as basanites.
(a.) Mount Holmes Basalt.
This is macroscopically an open-grained basaltic-looking greyish-black
rock, showing plentiful small crystals of olivine and augite, and weather-
ing out to a greyish-fawn colour.
Microscopically it is holocrystalline, and of porphyritic, hypidiomorphic
structure. The chief phenocrysts are faint greenish-pink augite and olivine :
they are of large size. The olivine is very fresh and sharply edged.
Augite is frequently of a dirty-green colour ; it occasionally enwraps the
olivine. Tue augite also commonly includes magnetite, and in a few
instances a little feldspar.
Feldspar and augite are both porphyritic. The feldspar typically is
much corroded, and has numerous inclusions of groundmass. Twinning
by the Carlsbad and albite laws is prevalent. The varieties varv from
andesine-labradorite to labradorite.
The open fine-grained base which encloses the phenocrysts consists of
a plexus of well-shaped feldspar laths which enwrap plentiful microlitic
almost colourless augite granules, fairly abundant magnetite, a little
coarser olivine, and a little ilmenite. Crystallites of indistinct nature
occupy the finest interspaces between the augite granules.
Chemical Characters.
An analysis of this rock shows that it is a fairly typical basalt. The
percentage of ferrous iron is particularly high, and is probably due largely
to the greenish augite, as well as to the magnetite and ilmenite.
An analysis of a basalt, quoted from Rosenbusch's " Elemente der
Gesteinslehre." is also appended.
SiOo .. •
A1203
Fe,03
Feb
MgO
CaO
K20
Na20
H20
Ti02
99-63 100-46
A. Basalt. Mount Ho'.mes, Mount Cargill, Dunedin. (Analysis. J.
Bartrum.)
B. Basalt.*
A.
B.
..
42-75
. .
1717
17-24
2-60
8-01
11-77
5-88
5-80
617
. .
10-05
1114
. .
1-54
2-48
. .
3-60
4-21
. .
1-20
1-06
213
* Rosenbusch, " Elemente der Gesteinslehre," p. 323, No. 15, 1001 ed.
176
Transactions.
(b.) Junction Basalt.
The occurrence of this rock over an area around the Junction School
has already been noted.
In hand-specimen the Junction basalt is similar to the Mount Holmes
rock, but breaks with a much less regular fracture than the latter.
Under the microscope the chief difference is seen to be in the structure.
The groundmass is dense and microcrystalline ; it consists of predominant
magnetite in small squares, plentiful colourless augite granules, and inter-
stitial microlitic grains of feldspar.
Large laths of feldspar showing albite twinning are fairly plentiful,
and, with olivine and augite, comprise the phenocrysts. The variety of
feldspar is chiefly labradorite. Olivine and augite are in large very
plentiful crystals. Celyphitic arrangement of the augite about the olivine
is not infrequent. The augite is a pink variety, and the olivine often
shows alteration to serpentine and to carbonates.
A few large crystals of ilmenite and magnetite are present.
A curious feature of the rock is the occurrence of occasional large
crystals of nepheline that have suffered considerable resorption ; there
is a wide fringing zone of small feldspars and a central remnant of the
nepheline. The nepheline has probably been caught up from contiguous
rocks. It is comparatively plentiful in a rock found on the hillside north-
west of the North-east Valley tannery — a basalt characterized by abundant
feldspar and sharply idiomorphic violet augite phenocrysts, and by a
very dense groundmass — and has there the same peculiarities.
The order of crystallization in the Junction basalt seems to be : Pheno-
crysts (in order), iron-ore, olivine, augite, feldspar, and then (in order) the
magnetite, augite, and feldspar of the groundmass.
Chemical Characters.
An analysis of the Junction basalt is appended, with, for purposes
of comparison, analyses of two other basalts. The analysis shows high
percentages of silica, magnesia, and ferrous iron, which correspond well
with the abundance of augite in the rock.
Si02 '
A12U3
Fe203
FeO
MgO
CaO
K20
Na20
H20
CI
Ti02
P206
NiO
Ba()
A.
B.
c.
45-80
47-68
48-97
17-91
17-90
16-37
614
4-48
1-33
8-69
9-05
8-56
3-92
8-71
6-22
8-10
5-65
7-49
1-77
2-68
1-72
4-71
2-35
4-09
2-10
1-16
0-38
0-11
0-20
0-35
3-95
1-04
0-08
0-06
99-50
99-86
100-26
A. Basalt No. I*
B. Junction basalt. Mount Cargill. (Analysis, J. Bartrum.)
C. Scoriaceous basaltic lava from recent eruptions at Pantellaria.f
* Cotton, " (ieology of Signal Hill," Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 41, 19C9, p. 122.
f H. S. Washington, " Titaniferoua Basalts of the Western Mediterranean," Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 63, Feb., 1!>07, p. 75.
Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount Cargill, Dunedin
177
Basanites.
Mention has been made already of the so-called basanites. In the
hand-specimen they are fine-grained dense blackish rocks, showing few
conspicuous phenocrysts.
Besides the occurrences already noted, a basanite is found as extensive
rubble near the hypabyssal trachydolerite on Pine Hill.
Under the microscope these rocks show a typically dense base and a
paucity of phenocrysts ; augite is the commonest of the few phenocrysts
that are seen. It is most often of a pale-pinkish colour, but a green augite
with pink border and a purplish-violet variety are also present.
In the basanite found north of the Junction School a strongly pleo-
chroic mica is prominent. It occurs, along with a little serpentine, as an
alteration-product of the olivine ; its pleochroism varies from deep brown
to bright golden-brown. It is thought to be anomite.
Feldspar seldom is a phenocryst in the Mount Cargill basanites ; a few
very large feldspars show albite twinning, and seem to be o'igoclase. They
are, however, so crowded by augite granules and other inclusions that an
exact determination cannot be made.
The groundmass is very dense, and is composed mainly of small grains
and squares of magnetite.
In the anomite-bearing rock the magnetite is less important, and an
interstitial feldspar is the chief constituent, along with grains of colourless
augite. The augite is usually in fair amount in these rocks, but feldspar
typically occurs only in a comparatively few needle laths.
No chemical analysis of any of the basanites was made.
Relationships of the Trachydolerite and Phonolite Series.
The analyses given in the subjoined table show how gradual a passage
there is chemically from the more basic trachydolerites to the phonolites.
Petrological characters also indicate that such a gradation is not a matter
of chance, but represents a differentiation of many types from the one
magma. In certain cases this is due to differences in the rate of cooling.
All evidence from the Mount Cargill area would show that the Logan's
Point trachytoid phonolite is a portion of the main alkaline magma, and,
in fact, a modification of the trachydolerites and the nephelinitoid phono-
lites. Evidence from other parts of the district dispels any idea of its
contemporaneity with these latter rocks.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Si02
. 50-43
49-02
54-24
54-88
56 12
A1203
. 18-00
19-50
18-08
22-80
21-32
Fe203
3-78
4-37
2-18
3-66
2-59
FcO
5-65
6-60
3-53
3-26
3-29
MgO
2-91
214
0-88
0-38
0-56
CaO
5-76
6-76
5-01
2-24
2-30
K20
. 4-79
1-70
5-09
3-65
4-81
Na20
5-76
7-35
7-29
7-53
5-79
H20
1-37
1-18
1-79
0-91
1-54
CI ..
. 0-38
0-63
0-63
0-34
98-83 98-64 98-72 99-94 98-66
A. Trachydolerite, Main Peak, Mount Cargill.
B. Trachydolerite, near Pine Hill, Mount Cargill.
C. Basic type of trachydolerite. Butter's Peaks, Mount Cargill.
D. Nephelinitoid phonolite, Butter's Peaks, Mount Cargill.
E. Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite, Mount Zion, Mount Cargill.
178 Transactions.
Source and Sequence of the Mount Cargill Rocks.
In his paper on the " Geology of Signal Hill,"* Cotton deduces that the
Logan's Point phonolite is earlier than the Signal Hill type. His statement
is based on evidence brought forward by Professor Marshall showing the
relative sequence of the two rocks at the North Head. It is probable that
the Mount Cargill and Signal Hill occurrences of the two phonolites are
portions of the same flows, and, if this is the case, field evidence at Mount
Cargill makes it certain that the flow of the later of the two trachy-
toid phonolites must have been south-west, down a steep slope of the
earlier.
Basaltic rocks in the North-east Valley Stream, near its headwaters,
may represent basic outpourings intermediate between the two phonolites
— a supposition in accordance with the sequence noted by Professor
Marshall at the North Head.f
The trachydolerite seems to overlie a surface of Signal' Hill phonolite
that slopes gently south-west. This, together with the fact that the Mount
Holmes basalt is the ' north-east boundary of the trachydolerite. strongly
supports the contention that the flow of this latter rock was in a south-west
direction from Mount Cargill.
A series of rough joints, very steeply inclined, and running approxi-
mately east and west along the strike of the prominent rock ridge of the
Main Peak and of Butter's Peaks, together with petrological evidence show-
ing differences in the rates of cooling, tends to indicate that the eruption
of trachydolerite was from a fissure occupying the site of the present ridge.
The North-east Valley seems to have begun its existence after the extru-
sion of the trachydolerite and before the ejection of the Mount Holmes
basalt, for basalt remnants are found on both Mount Cargill and Signal
Hill slopes, and a simple explanation of this is that the basalt from Mount
Holmes flowed down the already formed valley.
The origin of the basanites is uncertain ; possibly many of them are
more of the nature of intrusions than flows, but it is probable that they are
in some way connected with the basanitic outpourings that were frequent
in the district north-east of the Mount Cargill area.
The nephelinitoid phonolite of Butter's Peaks may be a dyke. The
other types outcropping near it are simply modifications of the main trachy-
dolerite flow. Al! probably originate from the one magma.
Quantative Classification.
The quantative classification of this series of Mount Cargill rocks has
been worked out by the method of Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washing-
ton.! The following is the result : —
1. General lava trachydolerite —
Class II. Dosalane.
Order 6. Norgare.
Rang 3. Salemase.
Subrang 4 Salemose.
* Trans. N.Z. last., vol. 41, 1909, p. 113.
+ "U.-ology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. Geol. .Soc, vol. 62, 1900, p. 418.
% " Quantative Classification of Igneous Rooks."
Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount Gar gill, Dunedin. 179
2. Pine Hill lava trachydolerite —
Class II. Dosalane.
Order
4.
Austrare.
Rang
5.
Andase .
Subrang 4.
Andose.
3. Dense basic type of trachydolerite —
Class Dosalane.
Order
6.
Norgare.
Rang
Subrang
4.
4.
(Not named.)
(Not named.)
4. Nephelinitoid
Class II.
phonolite —
Dosalane.
Order
5.
Germanare.
Rang
2.
Monzonase.
Subrang
4.
Akerose.
5. Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite—
Class I. Persalane.
Order
5.
Canadare.
Rang
2.
Pulaskase.
Subrang
4.
Laurvikose.
6. Mount Holmes basalt —
Class III. Salfemane.
Order 6. Portugare.
Rang 4. (Not named.)
Subrang 3. (Not named-)
7. Junction basalt
Class. — Between II (Dosalane) and III (Salfemane).
Order 5. Germanare. (Gallare.)
Rang 3. Andase. (Camptonase.)
Subrang 3. Shoshonose. (Kentallenose.)
Art. XVII. — Descriptions of New Native Species of Phanerogams.
By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.]
Colobanthus monticola sp. nov.
Planta musciformis, humillima, dense caespitosa, ramosa, glaberrima.
Folia arete imbricata, paribus oppositis basi in vaginam membranaceam
brevem connatis, 6-8 mm. longa, lineari-subulata, acicularia, viridia, mar-
ginibus stramineis valde incrassatis, cetera evenosa.
Flores laterales breviter pedunculati, pedunculis fructiferis elongatis.
Calyx alte 4-partitus ; lobis angustc lineari-subulatis, acicularibus,
foliis subsimilibus.
Stamina 4, inter calycis lobos disposita, lobisque dimidio breviora.
Stvli 4, breves, stamina vix sunerantes.
Capsula 4-loculata, sepala aequans matura.
]8<) Transactions.
A very low densely tufted branched glabrous moss-like plant, forming
small cushions rising an inch or less above the ground.
Leaves closely imbricating, spreading, opposite pairs connate at the
base and forming a short membranous sheath, 6-8 mm. long, linear-
subulate, acicular, green, with strongly thickened margins, otherwise
veinless.
Flowers near the tips of the branchlets, lateral, shortly peduncled,
the peduncles elongating in fruit.
Calyx deeply 4-partite, the lobes narrow linear-subulate, acicular, and
leaf-like.
Stamens 4, short, inserted between the calyx-lobes and barely half as
long.
Styles 4, short, barely exceeding the stamens.
Capsule 4-celled, as long as the sepals when mature.
Hub. — Rocky faces of the Sealey Range, Mount Cook district, at
5,500 ft,
The present species is closely allied to C. canaliculatus T. Kirk. It
differs in the number of sepals and stamens, which are uniformly 4 ; in
having the stamens and styles much shorter than the sepals ; and in
the form of the calyx-lobes, which are linear-subulate and acicular.
Epilobium microphyllum A. Rich. var. prostratum var. nov.
Planta typo simillima, ramis omnibus prostratis diffusisque, pedunculis
floriferis longioribus.
Plant similar to the type, except in its prostrate diffuse branches and
longer floriferous peduncles.
Hob. — Broken River (lower part) ; Opihi River (near Fairlie) ; vicinity
of Naseby. D. P. ; Mount Somers, B. C. Aston.
This curious form maintains its distinctive characteristics over a wide
area of the South Island. It occurs on gravelly flats in valley-bottoms.
Aciphylla intermedia sp. nov.
Caulis erectus, 4-6 dcm. altus.
Folia parum rigida, 2-3-pinnata. 25-40 cm. longa ; vagina una cum
petiolo laminam dissectam aequante vel excedente ; foliola ultima brevia
(8-12 cm. longitudine), angusta (4-5 mm. latitudine).
Innorescentia late oblonga, + 30 cm. longa.
Bractearum vaginae anguste obcuneatae, in prolongationem 1 2-pinnate
divisam foliorum laminis subsimilem productae.
Pedunculi universales congesti, longiusculi, tenues, sulcati.
Fructus lineari-oblongus, utraque facie 5-alatus.
Culms erect, 4-6 dcm. high, rather stout (2\ cm. across in the lower
part), strongly grooved.
Radical leaves numerous, 25-40 cm. long, 2-3-pinnate, pinnae in 4 or 5
pairs ; ultimate leaflets crowded, narrow-linear, grooved, slightly rigid,
8-12 cm. long, 4-5 mm. broad, spinous at the tips, the margins thickened
and delicately erose.
Sheaths and petioles together equalling or exceeding the dissected
blades ; sheaths 8-10 cm. long, 1 cm. broad at the tops, narrow-obcuneate.
furnished at either side with a linear spinous leaflet occasionally subdivided
and barely half as long as the petiole.
Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 181
Inflorescence broadly oblong, 30 cm. long or less ; bracts numerous.
crowded, with rather long thin flaccid narrow-obcuneate sheaths, sur-
mounted by two short linear lateral spines and continued into a 1-2-pinnate
leaf-like prolongation greatly exceeding the sheath and bearing 2-3 pairs
of leaflets besides the terminal one.
Principal peduncles of the branched umbel crowded, slender, grooved,
about as long as the bracts.
Fruit linear-oblong, 5-winged on either face.
Hab. — Mounts Hector and Holdsworth, Tararua Range. Wellington : on
the alpine meadow, from 3,500 ft. upwards.
I am indebted to Mr. B. C. Aston for specimens of this species, which
is intermediate between A. Colensoi Hook. f. and A. Monroi Hook, f., with
closer affinity with the latter. It is the plant referred to under the name
Aciphylla Monroi Hook. f. in my list of the plants observed on Mount
Hector (Transactions, vol. 40), and probably also the plant so named in
Mr. Aston's list of the plants of the Wellington district (Transactions,
vol. 42). The longer more flaccid leaves, the stout tall stem, and especially
the dense broad elongated inflorescence mark it off from A. Monroi. The
male inflorescence has not so far been seen. The plant is of infrequent
occurrence on the Tararuas, where, however, A. Colensoi is most abundant.
Coprosma Astoni sp. nov.
Frutex subhumilis, gracilis, ramosus, ± 2 m. altus.
Rami divaricantes, graciles, foliosi ; cortice + rugoso, cinereo-incano :
ramulis dense breviterque incano-pubescentibus.
Folia plerumque fasciculata, anguste linearia, 6-10 mm. longa, 1| mm.
lata, leviter retusa vel truncata, tenuia, glaberrima, plana, basim versus
subattenuata, supra enervia, in siccitate leviter recurva.
Flores sessiles, ramulos laterales valde abbreviates terminantes ;
masculi solitarii vel 2-4-fasciculati ; feminei solitarii.
Drnnnp crlnhnsa.e. macmitudine mediocres. clare rubrae.
CORRIGENDA.
Page 180. line 30.
As the specific name intermedia is already appropriated,
if the genus Ligusticum as used in Cheeseman's Manual be
merged with Aciphylla, the name oreophila is suggested
by the author for the species. — Editor.
[Fare p. 180.
Drupes globose, rather small, bright red.
Hab. — Whisky Gully, near Tapanui, B. C. Aston and L. Cockayne ;
the Hump, between Lake Hauroko and the sea, J. Crosby Smith ; Route-
burn Valley, in shady beech forest, D. P.
The present species has its nearest ally in my Coprosma Banksii ; its
leaves are smaller and shorter, very uniform in size and shajDe, and more
freely fascicled ; the branchlets are uniformly grey-pubescent ; and the
drupes are smaller, globose, and bright red. It is a very distinct plant,
and the leaves are quite characteristic.
]gO Transactions.
A very low densely tufted branched glabrous moss-like plant, forming
small cushions rising an inch or less above the ground.
Leaves closely imbricating, spreading, opposite pairs connate at the
base and forming a short membranous sheath, 6-8 mm. long, linear-
subulate, acicular, green, with strongly thickened margins, otherwise
veinless.
Flowers near the tips of the branch lets, lateral, shortly peduncled,
the peduncles elongating in fruit.
Calyx deeply 4-partite, the lobes narrow linear-subulate, acicular, and
leaf-like.
Stamens 4, short, inserted between the calyx-lobes and barely half as
long.
Styles 4, short, barely exceeding the stamens.
Capsule 4-celled, as long as the sepals when mature.
Hab. — Rocky faces of the Sealey Range, Mount Cook district, at
5,500 ft,
The present species is closely allied to ('. canaliculatus T. Kirk. It
differs in the number of sepals and stamens, which are uniformly 4 ; in
having the stamens and styles much shorter than the sepals ; and in
the form of the calyx-lobes, which are linear-subulate and acicular.
Epilobium microphyllum A. Rich. var. prostratum var. no v.
Planta typo simillima, ramis omnibus prostratis diffusisque, pedunculis
floriferis longioribus.
Plant similar to the type, except in its prostrate diffuse branches and
longer floriferous peduncles.
Hab. — Broken River (lower part) ; Opihi River (near Fairlie) : vicinity
of Naseby, D. P. ; Mount Somers, B. C. Aston.
This curious form maintains its distinctive characteristics over a wide
area of the South Island. It occurs on gravelly fiats in valley-bottoms.
part), strongly grooved.
Radical leaves numerous, 25-40 cm. long, 2-3-pinnate, pinnae in 4 or 5
pairs ; ultimate leaflets crowded, narrow-linear, grooved, slightly rigid,
8-12 cm. long, 4-5 mm. broad, spinous at the tips, the margins thickened
and delicately erose.
Sheaths and petioles together equalling or exceeding the dissected
blades ; sheaths 8-10 cm. long, 1 cm. broad at the tops, narrow-obcuneate.
furnished at either side with a linear spinous leaflet occasionally subdivided
and barely half as long as the petiole.
Petrie. — Netr Native Species of Phanerogams. 181
Inflorescence broadly oblong, 30 cm. long or less ; bracts numerous,
crowded, with rather long thin flaccid narrow-obcuneate sheaths, sur-
mounted by two short linear lateral spines and continued into a 1-2-pinnate
leaf-like prolongation greatly exceeding the sheath and bearing 2-3 pairs
of leaflets besides the terminal one.
Principal peduncles of the branched umbel crowded, slender, grooved,
about as long as the bracts.
Fruit linear- oblong, 5-winged on either face.
Hah. — Mounts Hector and Holdsworth, Tararua Range. Wellington : on
the alpine meadow, from 3,500 ft. upwards.
I am indebted to Mr. B. C. Aston for specimens of this species, which
is intermediate between A. Colensoi Hook. f. and A. Monroi Hook, f., with
closer affinity with the latter. It is the plant referred to under the name
Aciphylla Monroi Hook. f. in my list of the plants observed on Mount
Hector (Transactions, vol. 40), and probably also the plant so named in
Mr. Aston's list of the plants of the Wellington district (Transactions,
vol. 42). The longer more flaccid leaves, the stout tall stem, and especially
the dense broad elongated inflorescence mark it off from A. Monroi. The
male inflorescence has not so far been seen. The plant is of infrequent
occurrence on the Tararuas, where, however, A. Colensoi is most abundant.
Coprosma Astoni sp. nov.
Frutex subhumilis, gracilis, ramosus, + 2 m. altus.
Rami divaricantes, graciles, foliosi ; cortice + rugoso, cinereo-incano :
ramulis dense breviterque incano-pubescentibus.
Folia plerumque fasciculata, anguste linearia, 6-10 mm. longa, H mm.
lata, leviter retusa vel truncata, tenuia, glaberrima, plana, basim versus
subattenuata, supra enervia, in siccitate leviter recur va.
Flores sessiles, ramulos laterales valde abbreviates terminantes ;
masculi solitarii vel 2-4-fasciculati ; feminei solitarii.
Drupae globosae, magnitudine mediocres, clare rubrae.
A rather low slender branched shrub, 2 m. high, or less.
Branches divaricating more or less, slender, leafy ; bark dull grey,
more or less rough and wrinkled ; branchlets brownish-grey, closely clothed
with short stiff greyish pubescence.
Leaves in small fascicles on the arrested side shoots, on the youngest
twigs often in opposite pairs, narrow-linear, 6-10 mm. long, 1| mm. broad,
truncate or retuse, narrowed towards the base, thin, flat, glabrous, slightly
recurved when dry, nerveless above, below with evident midrib and
indistinct nerves.
Stipules grey, bluntly triangular, long-ciliate.
Male flowers terminating the short side shoots, sessile, solitary or in
fascicles of 2-4 ; female similarly placed, solitary.
Drupes globose, rather small, bright red.
Hob. — Whisky Gully, near Tapanui, B. C. Aston and L. Cockayne ;
the Hump, between Lake Hauroko and the sea, J. Crosby Smith ; Route-
burn Valley, in shady beech forest, D. P.
The present species has its nearest ally in my Coprosma Banksii ; its
leaves are smaller and shorter, very uniform in size and shape, and more
freely fascicled ; the branchlets are uniformly grey-pubescent ; and the
drupes are smaller, globose, and bright red. It is a very distinct plant,
and the leaves are quite characteristic.
182 Transactions.
Celmisia Cockayniana sp. nov.
Folia anguste obovato-spathulata, 5-10 cm. longa, l|-2 cm. lata, sub-
acuta, subcoriacea, minute denticulata (denticulis subteretibus), minute
apiculata ; superne glabra, distincte venosa ; subtus dense et appresse
albo-tomentosa (costa media excepta), venis haud distinctis.
Scapi 2-3, 1^—2 dcm. longi, subgraciles, pilis articulatis glandulosis (ut
etiam bracteae involucrique squamae) viscosi, rare- apice divisi ; bracteae
numerosae, + imbricatae, lanceolato-oblongae, acutae vel subacutae.
Involucri squamae pluri-seriatae, lineari-subulatae ; interiores longiores
angustioresque, apicibus sparse lanatae.
Capitula magnitudine mediocria, + 12 mm. lata.
Aehaenia linearia, hispido-sericea.
Leaves rather few, narrow obovate-spathulate, 5-10 cm. long, 1^-2 cm.
broad, subacute, rather coriaceous, distantly and minutely denticulate, the
short semiterete teeth standing out from the margin, bluntly apiculate ;
upper surface dull green (when dry), glabrous, with evident venation ;
under-surface densely clothed with closely appressed whitish tomentum,
except the midrib, veins indistinct.
Scapes 2-3 on each short creeping shoot, lf-2 dcm. high, viscid,
densely clothed, as are the bracts and involucral scales, with glandular
jointed hairs, rarely branched at the top ; bracts numerous, overlapping,
lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, acute or subacute.
Involucral bracts numerous, in several series ; the inner longer,
narrower, and sparingly cottony above.
Heads of moderate size (about 12 mm. across).
Achenes linear, hispidly silky.
Hab. — Mount Fyffe, Seaward Kaikouras, at 4,000 ft.
For specimens of this species I am indebted to Dr. L. Cockayne, who
collected them so long ago as 1892. I have put off describing them, in
the hope that further material might be procured, but the plant has not
been met with since. Its affinity is with C. hieracifolia Hook. f. In form
the leaves recall those of some states of C. Sinclairii Hook, f., but they
are more coriaceous and much less distinctly dentate. The abundant
glandular pubescence of the scape and its members relates it more clearly
to C. hieracifolia, from which it differs in the whitish tomentum and in
the smaller narrower spathulate more acute leaves.
Celmisia Boweana sp. nov.
Folia parum numerosa, stricta, integerrima, vix coriacea, 14-22 cm.
longa, 1-1| cm. lata, anguste lineari - lanceolata, ad apicem versus
gradatim attenuata, acuta, marginibus + recurvis ; superne glabra vel
glabrescentia, per totam longitudinem rugato - sulcata, flavido - viridia ;
subtus + sulcata, pilis flavidis laxe appressis (costa media excepta)
tomentosa ; apicibus nonnunquam laxe lanatis.
Vaginae + 6 cm. longae, striatae, membranaceae, extra incano-tomen-
tosae, intus plerumque glabrae.
Scapi 1-4, tenuiores, foliis sabduplo longiores, pilis subfiavidis laxe
tomentosi ; bracteae numerosae, lineares, ad apicem versus diminuentes.
tomentosae.
Capitulum + 2| cm. latum ; involucri squamae lineares, tenues, to-
mentosae.
Aehaenia glabra vel parum hispidula.
Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 183
Leaves 14-22 cm. long, l-\\ cm. broad, fairly numerous, strict, narrow
linear-lanceolate, entire, slightly coriaceous, gradually tapering to the
acute tip, marked by close parallel longitudinal grooves or fine., wrinklings
above and less prominently below ; upper surface yellowish-green, glabrous
or glabrescent, the tips sometimes loosely tomentose on both surfaces ;
under-surface, except the midrib, covered with loosely appressed pale-yellow
cottony tomentum ; margins more or less recurved ; sheaths about 6 cm.
long, thin and membranous, glabrous on the inside, cottony-tomentose on
the edges and outside.
Scapes 1-4, rather slender, flexuous, slightly rigid, nearly twice as long
as the leaves, densely clothed with creamy-yellow loose cottony tomentum ;
bracts numerous, linear, thin, tomentose except on the midribs, gradually
diminishing towards the top.
Heads about 2| cm. across ; involucral bracts numerous, linear, thin,
cottony.
Achenes glabrous or slightly hispidulous.
Hab.- — Sealey Range, Mount Cook district, in tussock meadow, about
5,000 ft. ; T. F. Cheeseman, Mrs. F. Bowe, and D. P.
This species is dedicated to Mrs. F. Bowe. a keen observer and ardent
lover of our native alpine and subalpine plants, who first directed my
attention to it. Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., collected it a good many
years ago, and he considers it a form of C. Monroi Hook. f. This view I
am unable to entertain. It differs from C. Monroi in the narrower, less
coriaceous, more acute leaves that are green above and very distinctly
grooved or finely wrinkled ; in the yellowish loosely appressed tomentum
that clothes the under-surface of the leaves and the scapes ; and in the
more slender flexuous scapes.
Gentiana Matthewsii sp. no v.
Planta subgracilis, ramosa, glaberrima, annua (?), li-2J dcm. alta.
Caulis a basi ramosus ; rami graciles, adscendentes vel suberecti, sub-
quadrangulares.
Folia radicalia pauca, subrosulata, spathulata, tenuia, 2-4 cm. longa,
+ 6 mm. lata, obtusa vel subacuta ; caulina sessilia, late ovata vel ovato-
triangularia, subacuta, basi semi-amplexicaulia, 8-12 mm. longa, in paribus
distantibus disposita.
Flores subnumerosi, solitarii, albi, 10-15 cm. longi, ramulos ultimos
terminantes.
Calycis lobi ovato-oblongi, subacuti, corolla persistente fere dimidio
breviores.
Capsula matura breviter rostrata, corollam superans.
A rather slender branched glabrous annual (?) herb, H-2^ dcm. high.
Stems branched from the base and again more or less subdivided ;
branches slender, ascending or suberect, more or less distinctly quad-
rangular from ridges running down from the bases of the cauline leaves.
Radical leaves few, subrosulate, thin, spathulate, 2-4 cm. long, about
6 mm. broad, obtuse or subacute ; cauline 8-12 mm. long, sessile in distant
pairs, broadly ovate or ovate-triangular, subacute, semi-amplexicaul.
Flowers fairly numerous, solitary, at the tips of the ultimate branch -
lets, 10-15 mm. long, white.
Calyx divided for three-quarters its length, half as long as the corolla ;
the lobes ovate-oblong, subacute.
Stamens rather longer than the calyx-lobes. Capsule when mature
one-quarter longer than the persistent nearly closed corolla.
184 Transactions.
Hub. — Moist grassy slopes near Lake Harris. Routeburn Valley, Lake
Wakatipu, 4,000 ft,
This species is somewhat closely allied to G. Grisebachii Hook, f.,
differing in the stouter more erect stems and branches, the much larger
flowers, and the shorter broader calyx-lobes. It is named in honour of
the late Henry J. Matthews, for some years Chief Forester under the
Dominion Government. Though Mr. Matthews did not write much on
botanical subjects, he had a wide and accurate knowledge of the native
flora, and, as he was an acute observer and had occasion to visit many out-
of-the-way districts, he formed a fine collection of the native plants, and
contributed very considerably to our knowledge of plant-distribution and
to the elucidation of several imperfectly known species, besides discover-
ing a number of new ones. To his kindness I am indebted for numbers
of interesting and valuable specimens that have greatly enriched my
herbarium. He was equally liberal to other botanical workers. His pre-
mature death was a great loss to the science he loved so well. The
magnificent alpine garden that he established at his home in Dunedin
was one of the sights of the Dominion. Many of its treasures are still in
cultivation in the Dunedin Botanical Gardens, which the taste and talent
of Mr. Tannock have made so attractive and instructive.
Euphrasia Laingii sp. nov.
Planta perennis, erecta vel basi decumbens, 1-2 dcm. alta, a basi
tan turn ramosa, bifariam pubescens.
Folia in paribus distantibus disposita, erecta, cuneata, 8-10 mm. longa,
4-6 mm. lata, sessilia, glaberrima, subcoriacea, obtusa, apice triloba (lobo
medio lato, lateralibus angustis), subrecurva.
Inflorescentia racemus spiciformis, elongata (5-10 cm. longa), multi-
bracteata, bracteis foliis similibus.
Flores axillares plerumque in paribus oppositis dispositi, pedicellati,
pedicellis folia aequantibus et + bifariam pubescentibus.
Calyx bracteis aequilongus, breviter 4-lobatus, lobis acutis vel sub-
acutis, manifeste venosus, venis ad 10.
Corolla infundibuliformis, 12-15 mm. longa, limbo valde dilatato, venis
manifestis.
Capsula cuneato-oblonga, bracteis aequilonga, calycis tubum vix vel
omnino aequans.
Perennial, erect or decumbent at the base, 1-2 dcm. high, branched
from the base, strongly bifariously pubescent.
Leaves in rather distant pairs, erect, cuneate, 8-10 mm. long, 4-6 mm.
broad at the tops, sessile, glabrous, subcoriaceous, the wide obtuse tips
cut into a broad median lobe and 2 narrow lateral ones, slightly recurved,
dull dark green.
Inflorescence a bracteate spike-like raceme, 5-10 cm. long, bracts leaf-
like.
Flowers generally in opposite pairs, pedicellate, the pedicels as long
as the leaves and more or less bifariously pubescent.
Calyx as long as the bracts, 4-lobed, the lobes a quarter the length of
the tubular part, acute or subacute, veined, the 5 veins corresponding to
the midribs more prominent than the others.
Corolla-tube funnel-shaped, much exceeding the calyx, 12-15 mm. long,
limb widely expanded with evident nerves ; lower lip 3-lobed emarginate,
upper 2-lobed refuse.
Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 185
Capsule cuneate-oblong, equalling the calyx-tube or rather shorter.
Seeds numerous in each cell (8-10).
Hab. — Mount Peel and Mount Winterslow, R. M. Laing ; Craigie Burn
Mountains, at sources of Broken River, L. Cockayne and D. P. ; Hooker
River, Mount Cook district, T. F. Cheeseman and D. P.
This species is intermediate between E. Monroi Hook. f. and
E. revoluta Hook. f. The pedicellate large flowers are like those of the
latter, while the erect stems, the subcoriaceous leaves, and the capsule
resemble those of the former. The elongated inflorescence, the pedicellate
lary;e flowers, the erect habit, and the characteristic cuneate leaves
unequally 3-lobed at the tips, form its most distinctive characters. The
plant may be easily identified by the leaves alone.
Euphrasia Townsoni sp. nov.
Annua ; culmi graciles, erecti, simplices vel a basi ramosi, 4-7 cm.
alti, pilis albis crispatis in parte articulatis et glanduliferis pubescentes.
Folia pauca, parva, in paribus remotis disposita, sessilia, glaberrima,
anguste rhomboidalia, dente unico prominente a utroque latere prope
medium et lobo terminali acuto triangulari instructa, 6 mm. longa, 2 mm.
lata ; marginibus reflexis.
Flores pauci extremum culmum versus et saepe in paribus oppositis
dispositi, majusculi, pedunculati ; pedunculi quam folia ter quaterve longi-
ores, gracillimi, pubescentes ; in siccitate subflavido-albi.
Calyx campanulatus ad tertiam partem 4-lobatus, lobis acutis, angustis.
Corollae tubus calycem paullo excedens, limbus late expansus ; labium
superius 2-lobatum, inferius alte 3-lobatum, lobis omnibus emarginatis :
venis conspicuis.
Capsula calyce brevior ; semina numerosa.
Annual ; stems slender, erect, simple or branched from the base.
4—7 cm. high, pubescent (in part bifariously) with short crisped white
hairs intermixed towards the tops with jointed glandular ones.
Leaves few, small, in remote opposite pairs, sessile, narrow-rhomboidal,
with a single prominent acute tooth on either side about the middle and
an acute triangular terminal lobe, glabrous, subcoriaceous, margins reflexed,
6 mm. long, 2 mm. broad.
Flowers few towards the tips, often in opposite pairs, pedunculate,
large, yellowish-white when dried ; peduncles 3 or 4 times as long as
the leaves, very slender, pubescent.
Calyx campanulate, 4-lobed one-third the way down, acute, narrow.
Corolla-tube a little longer than the calyx ; limb wide-spreading ; upper
lip 2-lobed, lower deeply 3-lobed, all the lobes widely emarginate ; veins
distinct.
Capsule shorter than the calyx; seeds numerous in each cell (8 to 10).
Hab. — Mount Rochfort. near Westport, W. Townson ; Denniston.
J. Caffin (1896).
The leaves of this species are highly characteristic, and easily
distinguish it from any of the other native species. The long slender
straight peduncles also form a good distinctive character. It gives me
pleasure to name the species after Mr. W. Townson, who has so success-
fully explored the floral riches of the West Nelson district, and to whom
I am indebted for specimens of a number of the species peculiar to that
part of the South Island.
186 Transactions.
Pimelea Crosby-Smithiana sp. nov.
Planta humilis, ramosa, glabra.
Rami subgraciles, cicatricibus foliorum delapsorum notati.
Ramuli glaberrimi, subquadrangulares.
Folia dense quadrifariam imbricata, erecto-patentia, glaberrima, acuta,
supra concava, infra distincte carinata, ad basim sessilem attenuata,
anguste ovata, 7 mm. longa, 3 mm. lata, consimilia, margine cartilagineo
instructa : subfloralia similia sed paullo latiora.
Inflorescentia capitata, floribus numerosis.
Perianthii tubus foliis aequilongus, passim la ids longis albis vestitus ;
lobi late oblongi, obtusi, ciliati.
Stigma exsertum.
A low diffusely branched shrubby plant.
Branches rather slender, greyish-brown, marked by the scars of fallen
leaves.
Branchlets glabrous, subquadrangular.
Leaves closely quadrifariously imbricating, erecto-patent, glabrous,
acute, concave above, strongly keeled below, narrowed at the sessile base,
narrow-ovate, 7 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, very uniform, with a cartilaginous
margin all round ; subfloral similar to the cauline but slightly broader.
Inflorescence of numerous flowers, capitate.
Tube of perianth as long as the leaves, everywhere clothed with long
white hairs ; lobes broadly oblong, obtuse, ciliate.
Stigma exserted.
Hab. — The Hump, a high hill between Lake Hauroko and the sea.
This plant was collected by Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S., of Invercargill.
Its nearest relative is P. Gnidia Willd. The south-west corner of the South
Island is difficult to explore, but Mr. Crosby Smith is reaping a fine reward
for his zeal in examining this virgin country.
Festuca multinodis Petrie and Hackel sp. nov.
Culmi caespitosi, decumbentes, tandem ascendentes, ramosi, foliosi,
1-3 dcm. longi.
Folia in culmis singulis ad 12, + secunda.
Panicula 3-6 cm. longa, ovata vel lanceolata, + complanata ; rami
inferiores binati, rhachi ramisque glabris.
Glumae floriferae plerumque ex-aristatae.
Densely tufted ; culms decumbent below, finally ascending, leafy,
more or less geniculate, 1-3 dcm. long, slender, terete, subrigid. Innova-
tion shoots extra- vaginal.
Leaves generally secund, as many as 12 on each culm ; sheaths long,
overlapping, glabrous, obscurely striate ; blades abruptly contracted above
the ligule, with a callus at their point of origin, shorter than the culms,
involute, setaceous, glabrous, acute, not or barely striate.
Panicle 3-6 cm. long, ovate or lanceolate, more or less flattened,
straight, compact ; rhachis and branches glabrous ; lower branches in
twos, short, sparingly subdivided.
Spikelets subsessile or shortly pedicellate, narrow-lanceolate, 8-12 mm.
long, bearing 4-8 rather distant florets.
Empty glumes unequal, thin, the upper reaching to the tip of the
lowermost floret, narrow-lanceolate, acute, the lower 1- the upper 3-nerved.
Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 187
Flowering-glumes coriaceous, lanceolate, acute ; awn none, or very
short; nerves 5, very obscure. Palea as long as the flowering-glume,
slightly coriaceous, 2-nerved ; nerves glabrous.
Hob. — Coastal cliffs and rocky slopes at Port Nicholson, and the shores
of Cook Strait.
Mr. B. C. Aston has furnished me with a fine series of specimens of
this grass, which gives promise of some considerable economic value. It
yields a large bulk of delicate foliage, and deserves experimental cultivation.
Professor Hackel, who has kindly reported on specimens forwarded to
him, and has also suggested the specific name, writes me as follows : ' The
species differs from Festuca rubra L. not only in the number of nodes and
leaves, but also in the character of the innovation shoots, which are extra -
vaginal throughout, while in F. rubra part of them grow up in the axils
of the persistent sheaths ; the sheaths of F. rubra are closed up to the
mouth, those of F. multinodis are split throughout. The inflorescence
and the spikelets show little difference, but the pales of F. multinodis are
quite smooth on the keels, while these keels are scabrid or somewhat ciliate
in F. rubra."
Mr. Aston has for some years urged in correspondence with me that
this Festuca was a new species, but, though agreeing with him, the genus
is one of such difficulty that I should not have published it had not Professor
Hackel supported our opinion.
Trisetum antarcticum Trinius, subspecies tenella, subsp. nov.
Folia fere omnia radicalia, brevia, 2-4 cm. longa, involuta, setacea,
tenuiter pubescentia.
Culmi valde graciles, teretes, glabri, tenuiter striati.
Panicula spiciformis, densa, oblonga, lf-3 cm. longa
Spiculae sessiles, compressae, 4 mm. longae.
Glumae vacuae subaequales ; floriferae vacuis paullo longiores ; arista
glumam aequans.
A slender erect perennial, forming diminutive tufts.
Leaves 2-4 cm. long, involute, setaceous, finely pubescent, one-third as
long as the culms or less ; ligule short, truncate, hyaline, erose, and more
or less ciliate. Cauline leaves solitary or rarely two, with sheaths several
times longer than the blades.
Culms very slender, terete, glabrous, finely striate.
Panicle spiciform, dense, oblong, 1^-3 cm. long, 5 mm. broad.
Spikelets sessile, compressed, 4 mm. long, the terminal ones very
shortly stalked.
Empty glumes almost equal, acute or acuminate, the lower narrower.
Flowering-glumes glabrous, a little longer than the empty : the awn
springing from the back a little below the tip, about as long as the glume,
slightly reflexed.
Palea as long as the flowering-glume.
Hob. — Dry shingly flats in the wide alluvial valleys of the Mount Cook
district, 2,500-3,500 ft. ; abundant,
The present subspecies differs from the type form of the species in the
short involute setaceous leaves, the slender erect culms that greatly exceed
the cauline leaves, the dense oblong spiciform panicle, and the small
spikelets with nearly equal empty glumes and shorter less reflexed awns.
Its distinctive characters show little variation. Its foliage is so short and
scanty that it is a quite unimportant element in the valley pastures.
188 Transactions.
Art. XVIII. — On Danthonia nuda Hook. f. and Triodia Thomsoni
(Buchanan) Petrie, comb. nov.
By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.]
Lx my herbarium there is a good specimen of Danthonia nuda Hook, f.,
collected at a high elevation on the Ruahine Range, Hawke's Bay.
There can be little doubt that this plant is a true Danthonia, though it
makes some approach to the genus Triodia. Sir J. D. Hooker's descrip-
tion of it is brief, and wanting in some important details. The culms are
very slender, leafy, and but little longer than the leaves. The sheath of
the" topmost cauline leaf is three or four times as long as the blade, which
reaches to the base of the panicle. The flowering-glumes show considerable
variation in the hairy covering, which is more ample than one would
suppose from Hooker's description. Besides the one or two small tufts
of hairs on the sides of these glumes, there is usually a scanty band
of sparse hairs across the back just above the middle, and often also
a few straggling hairs lower down but above the basal tuft. The awn,
which is quite straight, is one-third as long as the glume. The florets in
each spikelet are more commonly 2 than 3.
I have a few indifferent pieces of what is most likely this species from
the Tararua Range, collected by that excellent observer Mr. B. C. Aston.
Unfortunately, they are all past flower.
Danthonia nuda has long been confounded, and by myself in the first
instance, with a somewhat similar grass, the Danthonia Thomsoni of
Buchanan. The latter was discovered by me at Mount St. Bathan's,
Central Otago. As it has a wide distribution in districts explored by
Hector and Buchanan, and also by Von Haast. it is singular that it was not
found before. It may have spread and increased since*these early explora-
tions were made, but I consider it much more likely that it was merely
overlooked or mistaken for some other species that was collected then.
At present it has a wide distribution in the upland districts of South
Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. It is fully and accurately described
in Mr. Cheeseman's Manual under the name Danthonia nuda Hook. f..
though he notes that his plant may not be the same as Hooker's.
The grass is not, however, a Danthonia., but a characteristic species of
Triodia, to which I now give the name Triodia Thomsoni. It was
originally named in compliment to Mr. G. M. Thomson, and I am
special lv pleased to be able to associate permanently with it the name
of this old and valued friend. As a pasture-grass Triodia Thomsoni
possesses a high value. It has a fair amount of foliage, is deeply
rooted so as to withstand drought and exposure to drying winds, and
is palatable and highly nutritious. It forms one of the most common
and useful of the bottom grasses of the tussock-steppe in all the
upland districts through which it ranges, and is much eaten by sheep.
It is well worth artificial cultivation, and promises to help in reclaiming
the now desert and semi-desert lands from which the native pasture
has disappeared through long-continued overstocking.
Triodia Thomsoni differs from Danthonia nuda in the narrow panicle
with erect branches, the longer less-leafy culms that greatly exceed the
leaves, the longer narrower more numerous spikelets that usually contain
5-7 nearlv glabrous florets, and the much shorter less rigid awns.
Brown.- Migrations of the Polynesians 189
Art. XIX. -The Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence
oj their Language.
By Professor J. Macmillan Brown.
\Head before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 6th September, 1911.]
In the " Transactions of the Royal Scientific Society of Gottingen " for
1909 there appears a long paper on this subject by the late Professor
Finck, of Berlin. It attempts, as its title implies, to point out some of
the distinctions between the various languages of Polynesia, and by this
means to indicate the lines of migration that peopled the islands in which
they are spoken.
The gist of the arguments and conclusions is given in the last two pages,
and is somewhat as follows : From the southern Solomons a really united
people shifted to the northern fringe of Polynesia on their eastward trek.
Before the expedition turned southwards to Samoa the ancestry of the
present-day Ellice and Tokelau people branched off. The speech of that
time possessed all that marks Polynesian as contrasted with the related
Melanesian, especially the use of the old trial as plural, and the employ-
ment of separate possessive pronouns where once only a suffix was used ; it
was, in fact, probably the fundamental Polynesian tongue. The use of afe
for " a thousand " does not contradict this, although it appears in this sense
only in Fakaofa, Futuna, Samoa, Tonga, Uvea, and Niue ; for the word
is, as the Maori aivhe shows, common to Polynesia ; but it was extruded
in the other dialects by mano. There was a long rest in Samoa, as is shown
by the use of tokelau for " north " and tonga for " south " in a majority of
the groups, words taking this sense from the direction of the Tokelau and
the Tonga Groups from Samoa. After a small colony had swarmed off
westwards to Futuna, the great eastward-going expedition went south-
wards to the Tonga Archipelago, as is shown by the use of h in all the
groups to the south and east for s in Samoa and its immediate neighbours,
and by the use of toko as a personal prefix to words implying number and
quantity in all to the south and east for toka of Samoa, Fakaofa (the Tokelau
Group), Vaitupu (Ellice Group), and Futuna. After a short rest in Tonga
the expedition went off eastwards, leaving a contingent which sent branches
to Niue and Uvea. In the Cook Group it made a long sojourn, and there
formed the ground speech of eastern Polynesia ; it changed I into r and
/ into h before o and u, brought the adnominal particles na and no into
use beside the older a and o, and abbreviated the old possessive tou into to.
From this point various expeditions set out. One went to New Zealand
and the Chatham Islands and developed h for / before other vowels than
a and o ; it left before the counting by pairs arose that characterizes the
other eastern Polynesian dialects. A second went off south-east to Manga-
reva ; thence a branch hived off to Easter Island, farther in the same
direction, before the birth of the linguistic neologisms that unite the dialects
of the Marquesas and Hawaiian Groups with that of Mangareva. the forma-
tion of adverbs by prefixing ma or mo to a noun, and the change of tokerau
into tokorau. It was long before this northern expedition set out — long-
enough to develop these peculiarities. The Marquesas Group developed
as linguistic characteristics the pronominal form toia and the further
duplication of numeration by pairs in the case of ran (there equal to 400)
and mano (there equal to 4,000) before sending off the Hawaiian branch.
Meantime from the Cook Group another colony hived off to Tahiti, whose
190 Transactions.
dialect seems to be closely akin to that of Rarotonga, as is shown by the
common use of the plural and dual prefix pu'e. From Tahiti the Paumotu
and Manahiki Groups were colonized.
At the end of the article a sketch-map is given of these branching
migrations. But the limitations of the linguistic method are revealed
by the accompanying sketch-maps, one made by Horatio Hale in the
" forties" of last century on the " Wilkes Expedition," another by Gerland
for Waitz's " Anthropologic " in the " sixties," and a third by Weule for
Helmolt's " History of the World " early this century. Hale brings the
expedition first to Samoa, with offshoots to the Ellice and Tokelau Groups,
then to Tonga, and thence direct to New Zealand and the Chatham Islands ;
from Samoa, also, one goes off to Tahiti, whence one goes to the south-east
Marquesas, a second to the Tubuai Archipelago, and a third to the Cook
Group. A third colonizing expedition leaves Samoa for the Cook Group,
the Tubuai Archipelago, and Mangareva. Besides the branch to New
Zealand, Tonga sent off one to the north-west Marquesas and on to Hawaii.
Gerland, like Finck, brings his primary expedition through the Ellice and
Tokelau Groups to Samoa, thence, like Hale, over Tonga to New Zealand
and the Chatham Islands, whilst, as in Finck's, a Sanioan offshoot goes to
Futuna and one Tongan offshoot to Uvea and another to Niue. He also
sends a main expedition, like Finck, over the Cook Group to the Tubuai Archi-
pelago, and one to the Marquesas, a third to Easter Island, and a fourth
to Hawaii. Weule, like Hale, brings his expedition first to Samoa ; thence
one colony goes direct to Hawaii and another by way of Tahiti ; a third
goes direct to the Cook Group, and thence to the Tubuai Archipelago and
Mangareva. From the Cook Group a colony goes to New Zealand, whilst
from Tahiti one goes to the Cook Group and another to the south-east
Marquesas, and the north-west Marquesas are peopled from Tonga.
There is no better criticism of the linguistic method of finding lines
of migration than the presentation of these differences. The fact of the
matter is that these pure philologists isolate a few small phenomena that
each belongs to several groups, and ignore hundreds of others in which
the groups thus united disagree. One instance will be enough : Finck gives
a table of the sounds of each group, and then he proceeds in his sketch
to ignore some of the more striking variations. He gives ts (the English
missionaries make it ch) as a variation of t in Futuna, Uvea, Tonga, and
the Chatham Islands before the vowel i ; all the other dialects have only
t ; yet he brings no migration from any one of these direct to the Chatham
Islands, skipping New Zealand. So wh is given as a variation of h and /
not only in New Zealand and the Chatham Islands, but in the Tokelau
Group ; and the same groups are united by using w for v. Yet he ignores
this community of linguistic phenomena, and brings no migration from the
Tokelau Group to the southern groups, or the reverse. These are quite as
important as the break (') for k, on which he bases the linguistic community
of the Ellice, Tokelau, Samoan, Tahitian, South Marquesan, and Tubuai
Groups ; or the variation of r from /, on which he bases an eastern Polynesian
Group, consisting of New Zealand, Chatham Islands, Tahiti, the Paumotus,
the Cook Group, Mangareva, the Tubuai Archipelago, and Easter Island.
The radical mistakes made by these philological ethnologists are the
attempts to draw inferences from the language without the culture, and
the assumption that there was but one colonizing expedition. The extra-
ordinary similarity of the dialects (Finck seems to acknowledge " dialects "
as the proper term, for when he says " Sprnchen " he always adds, " that
Brown. — Mir/rations of the Polynesians 191
is to say, ' Dialekte ' ") as contrasted with the countless variety of not
merely dialects, but languages, in the Melanesian region and the Malayan
region, if properly considered, might have saved them from the latter
mistake. Even the few centuries which they seem to have in their minds
as covering the history of the human race in Polynesia would have developed
languages as distinct as, say, French and Spanish, or English and German.
If we were to take into account the marvellous similarity of the Polynesian
dialects not only in phonology and grammar, but in vocabulary, spread
over an oceanic region as wide as Europe and Asia combined, we would
not be far wrong in concluding that there have been thousands of migra-
tions from every island to every other island ; in short, a new sketch-map
of the Polvnesian migrations should so completely cross-hatch the central
Pacific that it would look black. In other words, for centuries at least
intercourse must have been almost unbroken amongst all the groups. If
this means anything, it means that for a prolonged period all the Poly-
nesians must have inhabited a large island or archipelago centrally situated,
and also quarantined from other regions under a social, if not political,
system that was practically a unity. The minute dialectic differences that
arose must have been kept in bounds by the constant social intercourse
that a single administrative system would allow — a system absolutely
different from that of Melanesia or of Malaysia. The differences are no
greater than those that separate the dialects of, say, Yorkshire and
Somerset, or Scotland and Middlesex. v
The consideration of the culture conveys the same impression ; the
ethnological differences are as negligible as the linguistic when placed beside
the points of agreement. One can find as wide variations of culture and
dialect in the purely German part of the German Empire. They seem
to have arisen in the presence of each other, as well as of the predominant
community of culture. In other words, they must have slowly developed
during the immense period of time that certainly was taken to produce the
practical identity of culture and language. This identity would have been
shattered into strongly contrasted fragments had it been compelled to run
the gauntlet of the limitless variety of Malaysia and Melanesia, not to speak
of having to sail right in the teeth of the south-east trades, the only fairly con-
stant wind on that route, the contrary wind being brief, fitful, and cyclonic.
There is, of course, a striking similarity between the languages of Poly-
nesia, Melanesia, and Malaysia that makes many speak of them unitedly
as the Oceanic language. But there is a phonological gulf between the
Polynesian dialects on the one hand and the Malaysian and, still more, the
Melanesian languages. Each of these two regions has its own range of
sounds, with considerable community ; but Polynesian has the peculiar
and distinguishing sounds of neither— it has the simplest range of sounds
that ever language had, all easily pronounceable by Aryan and, one may
add, by Japanese organs of speech. It has a similar contrast in voca-
bulary : with any one of the Malaysian or Melanesian languages except
Fijian it has never more than 20 per cent, of common words. It is the
grammar that has led to their classification as one language ; for none of
them have practically any formal grammar — they all move in an atmosphere
of particles, and there is a very considerable resemblance in the particles
used. But this absence of formal grammar is the commonest characteristic
of crossbred languages — i.e., languages that have resulted from the per-
manent or continuous settlement of a masterful people amongst a people
linguistically different ; the formal grammatical peculiarities of both are
192 Transactions.
gradually dropped, and particles take their place, or variations of order
of words.
The distinction which Max Muller drew between languages, classifying
them into isolating, agglutinative, and inflective, according as they had
no formal grammar, formal grammar with forms detachable from the stems,
and formal grammar with forms undetachable, is no real distinction.
There are few languages that have not at least traces of all three — isolation,
agglutination, and inflection- — either as vanishing habits or as neologisms.
It is the phonology, or range of sounds, that really distinguishes languages.
This cannot change — i.e., the organs of speech cannot change, except by
change of environment — i.e., by change of climate or change of educative
influences in the formative period of the organs of speech. The grammar
and the vocabulary are constantly changing by loss, or addition, or de-
velopment. Within the same zone of climate and physical environment
the sounds do not change except by change of mothers — i.e., by inter-
mixture of races linguistically different.
But in the languages of the three regions referred to — Polynesia,
Melanesia, and Malaysia — there is a considerable similarity of particles.
This undoubtedly means that one language has saturated the languages
of all three regions. The great variety of languages in Malaysia bars that
as the region from which this language came ; the still greater variety in
Melanesia still more effectually bars that. There is an easy solution when we
turn to Polynesia, which has only on# language, though it has many dialects.
But were this in conflict with the racial and cultural phenomena of the
three regions it would have to be abandoned, or considerably modified, or
conditioned. It is not, however. A visit to the Solomon Islands soon
convinces even the superficial, untrained observer that the fundamental
race of Melanesia is negroid : the woolly, tufty hair, the thick lips, the
flattened nostrils, the projecting muzzle, and the absence of calves on the
lower limbs are to be seen on all sides, quite apart from the dark colour
which gave the region its name. The predominance of the round head
and the low stature indicates the negritoes or pigmies as the branch of the
negroid race that first peopled Melanesia. But there is a considerable
infusion of tall stature, straight and wavy hair, light-brown and even
auburn hair, European features, and light-brown colour ; especially in the
eastern islands of the Solomons are the last three apparent. In the western
Solomons and the Bismarck Archipelago, though the colour is close to black,
the hair is often straight or wavy, and the profile is what we call Semitic,
whilst tall stature is not infrequent. There can be no hesitation in homing
this peculiar western Caucasianism to the west — i.e., to Malaysia or the Asiatic
Continent- — and in homing the light-haired Caucasianism of the eastern islands
to Polynesia. In Malaysia, again, we have, as the name implies, a strong
admixture of Mongoloidism with the primeval negroidism and the secondary
Caucasianism. When we turn to Polynesia we find the purest racial elements
— fundamental Caucasianism, with a slight admixture of negroidism.
The culture exhibits similar phenomena. Polynesia is the realm of the
patriarchate ; the pivot of relationship is the father. Right through
Melanesia and Malaysia the matriarchate is the system ; the mother is the
pivot of relationship : there is therefore no history, no preservation of the
records of the past, no tradition, the mother being only a private person,
and having no public events in her life to hand on the memory of to
posterity ; the sons as well as the daughters belong to her and her kin,
and do not count any relationship with the father and his relatives. The
Bbowjj. — Migrations of the Polynesians. 19o
patriarchate is at least thousands of years in advance of the matriarchate,
for it makes history and tribal and political unities ; the father hands on
to the children, and he is the warrior and event-maker ; hence, under the
patriarchate, tradition accumulates into chieftainship and kingship. There is
no broad realm of the patriarchate westwards from Polynesia till we reach
India. That the Polynesian social system should have travelled tens of
thousands of miles in frail canoes in the teeth of the trade- winds, and run
the gauntlet of two matriarchal realms, has a touch of the miraculous in it
or, in other words, seems contrary to the laws of nature.
It seems more in harmony with the possible, if not the probable, that
whatever kinship lies between the cultures and the languages of these three
regions has gone westwards out of Polynesia. And this is borne out by
facts. Fiji, the nearest part of the two regions to Polynesia, has had its
social system transformed from the matriarchal to the patriarchal ; chief-
ship and tribe and tradition have arisen in the group. It is highly Poly-
nesianized. When we get to the Solomon Islands, the nearest part to Fiji
in the eye of the trade-winds, three islands have gone in parts through the
same transformation — Malaita, Choiseul. and New Georgia ; and their natives
show a larger percentage of European features and light-brown hair than
those of any others of the group ; they are also most warlike, and go back
furthest into the past with their genealogies and traditions. The influence
of the patriarchate, tapers off as we go farther west into Malaysia.
The purpose of this excursion into ethnology is to show how close to
the absurd those philologists, like Finck, go who make the starting-point
of Polynesian colonization the south (they should say rather the east) of
the Solomons. The basis of the conjecture is a name often given to San
Cristoval, the most easterly of the Solomons. Hale identifies Bulotu, the
paradise and probable original home of Tongan and Samoan tradition, with
Bouro, one of the most easterly islands of Malaysia. German ethnologists
prefer, as a rule, to identify it with Bauro, the name referred to as applied
to San Cristoval. But Bauro is only a district on the north-east coast of
the island, and the natives prefer to call the island, if they have any name
for the whole, Makira.
We get into the region of the miraculous when we start a patriarchal,
tribal, genealogy-loving, chiefly Caucasian people from a matriarchal, kin-
divisioned, skort-memoried negrito island ; and still nearer the miraculous
when we start off, for nearly ten thousand miles of open oceanic wandering,
a canoe expedition right in the teeth of the only constant winds, the trades
that blow eight or nine months of the year, from an island that had only
shallow shells of canoes, unfit for crossing anything but fairly narrow straits
in calm weather or a favourable wind. The Polynesians were the only
people in the world that learned oceanic navigation before the use of the
compass. And it needs some exceptional, if not catastrophic, goad of
nature to explain the exception ; that we have in the subsidence, probably
often slow, but probably as often sudden, of the central island zone of the
Pacific that stretches south-east from the southern end of Japan across the
Equator, even as far as Easter Island. This manifestly went on for hundreds
of thousands of years ; and any humans that got on to the islands of this
zone would, time and again, have to go off the best way they could find in
search of other standing-places in the great flux of waters. Nowhere else
in the history of our world has such a goad been held by nature to the
backs of human beings. We may be quite certain that the regions to the
west would get flooded with migrations from water-logged Polynesia.
7 -Trans.
194 Transactions.
Art. XX. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes : No. 2.
By Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S., Curator, Canterbury Museum.
[Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th September, 1911.]
Plates X-XII.
6. Aegoeonichthys appelii Clarke.
Plate X.
To Mr. A. Hamilton; Director of the Dominion Museum, Wellington, I
owe the privilege of examining the remains of a specimen of this species.
This specimen is, I believe, only the second known ; it is in rather deplor-
able condition, being in two pieces, and has been otherwise so cut about
that no fully satisfactory description can be made. Mr. Hamilton writes,
" Please do whatever you like with the skin ; it is so torn and knocked
about that you will find description a difficult matter. The specimen
was caught by some fishermen on a line at the Heads (Port Nicholson),
and used by them for bait. Somebody saw it in the boat, and brought
the remains to me."
Though the specimen is in a very dilapidated condition, the rarity of
the species makes it advisable to attempt to extract some few grains of
information from the remains, and these will be useful in the case of definite
and fixed characters.
The type specimen was described and figured as having the head and
body strongly depressed, and as the author had the specimen entire, and
probably unmutilated, his description may be correct ; judging from our
remains alone, I should have said that the head, body, and tail were all
compressed, but the jaws appear to be so extensible and dilatable that
the contour of the head may perhaps be altered with the varying positions
of the jaws. Respecting this subject, Giinther* writes, " According to the
figure, Aegoeonichthys would appear to be much more depressed in shape
than Himantolophus ; however, we must remember that these flaccid deep-
sea fishes may assume, or be made to assume, very different appearances."
By careful piecing together it is found that the whole of the skin of
one side and of portion of the other remains, so that it is possible to
correctly render an account of all the fins, and the number and disposition
of the dermal scutes. The whole of the body, with the exception of the
vertebrae, is missing ; but if all the vertebrae are represented, as I believe
they are, their total number is 17, and this is also the number supplied for
Halieutaea, another member of the order.
Of Aegoeonichthys Giinther also writes, ' Unfortunately, nothing is
known of the gills of this fish, which, as regards grotesqueness of form,
surpasses the fishes of the preceding genus (Himantolophus). It is evidently
closely allied to Himantolophus reinhardtii, and I therefore suppose that it
possesses the same number of gills. If this should prove to be the case,
the question will arise whether it should be kept as the type of a distinct
genus."
* Giinther, " Challenger Reports," vol. 22, 1887, p. 51.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLTV.
Platf X.
Fact' p. 194. J
Waite. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 195
The gills in the present example are, fortunately, preserved, but as I
cannot refer to Lutken's paper* in which Himavtolopkus reinhardtii was
described and figured, I am not in a position to decide the question as to
generic identity. It is, however, possible that with the aid of the following
description others more fortunately situated may be able to do so.
The figure published in illustration of Clarke's paperf" is somewhat
crude, and, gauged by the characters of our example, incorrect as regards
the cephalic tentacle and the number and disposition of the dermal scutes.
I have therefore thought fit to refigure the species from the assembled
remains of the specimen intrusted to me. I have also essayed a descrip-
tion of the specimen, but owing to the imperfect condition it will be under-
stood that the proportional measurements are merely approximate, or,
it may be, even conjectural. These remarks apply, however, only to the
relative width and depth of the body and head, the bones being so flexible
that the character of the head may be made to assume either depressed or
compressed condition, while, as before stated, the absence of the soft
portions of the body renders its original shape largely conjectural.
D. I, 5 ; A. 4 ; V. 0 ; P. 17 ; C. 9 ; Vert, ? 17.
Head enormous and grotesque, its length half that of the total, com-
puted from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin ; its depth is
one-fifth greater than its length, and its width is a little more than half
its length. The cheeks are subvertical, and the eye is placed in a large
shallow depression rather high in the head. The eye is very small, about
12-3 in the head ; it lies midway between the tip of the snout and the supra-
orbital spine ; the latter marks the termination of the supraoccipital ridge ;
this is widely separated from its fellow where it originates behind the
premaxilla ; these ridges diverge behind, but are somewhat contracted in
the middle. The interorbital space is deeply concave, and from its centre
the remarkable tentacle takes its origin.
The gape is very wide, and the mandibular articulation is in advance
of the eye, and even in front of the tip of the snout. When closed the
mouth is almost vertical.
Teeth. — -The teeth are in about three irregular rows, the innermost con-
taining the largest ; they are spine-like, slightly recurved, and depressible ;
they are slightly longer in the lower than in the upper jaw ; the longest
are one-fifth more than the diameter of the eye. There are no teeth on
the vomer or palatines. Upper pharangeal teeth only are present ; they
form two clusters, which appear to act in apposition, the teeth of each
group being directed towards each other to form a grasping apparatus.
The teeth are similar to those in the jaws, but shorter and stouter, their
combined number being 14. There are no teeth on the lower pharangeals.
The chin forms the anterior contour of the head, projecting far beyond
the mouth when it is closed. There is an extensive frenum behind the
teeth in both jaws.
The branchiostegals are 6 in number on each side ; they do not bear
teeth, as stated by Clarke, who possibly wished to express the character
of the branchial arches. The gill-opening is small, and placed below the
base of the pectoral fin. The gills may perhaps be denoted by the formula
applied to Himantohphus — namely, \2\ pairs — but a more detailed account
of their character will be advisable,
* Liitken, K. dansk. Vidensk. Skriv.. 1880, p. 309, pi. ], 2.
t Clarke, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 10, 1878, p. 245. pi. 6.
196 Transactions
The outer branchial is free only in its posterior half, the anterior portion
being adnate to the ceratohyal. This attached portion only bears gills ;
they are much smaller than those of the other arches, on which they are of
considerable length. There is no trace of paired arrangement in the gills
of this outer arch. A paired disposition is apparent in the gills of the
two middle arches, for, though the rays are set in continuous series, they
are of heteracanth nature. The inner arch is wholly adnate to the mem-
branes at the lower part of the tongue, and is fully furnished with gill-
rays. The gill-rakers are spiny tubercles ; there are 12 on the first arch,
one of which is on the upper limb, just above the angle ; the rakers on
the median arches are in two rows, arranged alternately, there being 19
on the second arch.
Fins. — Some idea of the character of the dorsal tentacle will be derived
from Clarke's figures, but as it was evidently imperfect, and is even more
complicated than drawn and described, the following description will not
be out of place : — -
The tentacle lies in a deep groove between the supraorbital ridges, its
bulbous base being rather nearer to the mouth than is the eye ; the shaft
is very stout, and it terminates above in a large semispherical bulb, its
total length from base to summit being 1-7 in the length of the head.
From a cup in the summit of the bulb arises a freely movable stout
tentacle, which divides at a short distance above its insertion, each branch
throwing off 2 smaller twigs at about half its height. Inserted in the
bulb and behind the cup are 2 thick b-anches, which, however, arise
from a common base : they become flattened distally, and each, after
throwing off a twig from its inner side, divides into 3 arms ; these are
again subdivided, but the divisions are not the same in the two branches
The illustration accurately depicts the condition. Also, on the hinder
part of the bulb, but nearer its base and sides, are two other small twigs.
The word " frond " would perhaps be more appropriate, for the whole
tentacle may be likened to a plant of Fucus, the so-named twigs being
quite like the fronds of a seaweed, while the main and secondary stalks
answer to the stem and branches of the plant. There are, in all,
20 terminal fronds, and the distal portion of each is nacreous white,
and is no doubt luminous in life. When the tentacle is bent forwards
these luminous tips dangle just in front of the mouth, and are no doubt
very effective lures. It will be apparent that the tentacle was incomplete
in the type specimen, the stalk arising from the middle of the cup being
absent, and doubtless leadinsr its author to conclude that the substance
within the cup was luminous, though he does not actually say so.
The. dorsal fin has a slightly more forward insertion than the anal, and
has one more ray. The first is simple, the other four being divided nearly
to their bases. The third is the longest, being 3-2 in the head. The
last ray is connected to the peduncle, just free of the upper caudal ray.
The anal is very similar, but the first two of its 4 rays are simple. The
pectoral is short and rounded, and is placed nearly midway between the
end of the snout and the base of the caudal rays. The caudal is large
and rounded, arising from a very compressed and short peduncle, whose
depth is equal to the longest dorsal ray.
Armour. — The skin is soft and loose, warty on snout and chin, and,
excepting the top of the head, cheeks, lower jaw, and all parts in front
thereof, studded with round cartilaginous scutes, each of which bears in
its centre a hard low thorn with roots radiating into the body of the scute.
Waite. — -Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 197
Some of the scutes are much larger than others, and their exact number
and disposition are shown in the illustration. The covering of the main
stalk of the tentacle is formed of a mosaic of very small scutes, which also
bear spines, but they are reduced to hard tubercles.
Colours. — After long immersion in preservative the general colour is
a pale-flesh tint; the margin of the jaws, the post-dental frenum, the space
around the eyes, and the wart-like elevation on the chin are brown ; the
mid-line of the back and part of the stalk of the tentacle are also brown :
the branches of the tentacle are black, but their tips are white.
Some Measurements. — Extreme length, chin to end of caudal, 410 mm. ;
length as basis for comparisons, 270 mm. ; length of head to gill-opening,
135 mm.; diameter of eye, 10 mm.: length of tentacle-stalk, 78 mm.;
extreme length of tentacle, inclusive. 205 mm.
7. Saccarius lineatus Giinther.
In 1861 Giinther* diagnosed a new genus and species of the Pediculati
under this name. The type was a single specimen taken at the Bay of
Islands, New Zealand, presented to the British Museum by Sir A. Smith.
The reference is duly included in the " Catalogue of New Zealand
Fishes,"f also in the " List of New Zealand Fishes," likewise issued by
Captain Hutton. J In his later list§ the reference is entirely omitted,
and is not, in consequence, found in the " Basic List of the Fishes of New
Zealand."|!
This Antennariid is duly catalogued by Gill. If and, as I have not seen
any note discrediting the stated habitat, I presume that the omission by
Hutton was purely accidental. I therefore take this opportunity of draw-
ing attention to the omission, in order that it may not be again overlooked.
The type specimen appears to be the only example so far known.
8. Oreosoma atlanticum Cuvier and Valenciennes.
Plate XI.
During a recent visit to the Newtown Museum, Wellington, I noticed
in one of the exhibition cases a small fish which seemed familiar, though
at the time I was unable to name it. I find it to be an example of Oreo-
soma, and the consciousness of recognition is explained by the figures of
Cuvier and Valenciennes^ and the copy by Goode and Bean, familiar to all
ichthyologists. The specimen was kindly lent to me by Mr. Perry, the
librarian in charge, who informed me that the specimen was obtained alive
on the beach at Lyall Bay, near Wellington.
The genus Oreosoma is represented by a single species, of which only
one example was previously known : it was taken in the Atlantic, and
is only 1^ in. in length. This little fish was described in 1829 by Cuvier
and Valenciennes, who state that the name Oreosoma was given in allusion
to the great cones on the body, which resemble sugar-loaves, and are so
rugged and bold that a drawing of the fish resembles a chart of a volcanic
country.
* Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit, Mus., vol. 3. 1861, p. 183.
t Hutton, Cat. Fish. N.Z., 1872, p. 30.
% Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, 1890, p. 280.
§ Hutton. " Index Faunae Novae-Zealandiae," 1904.
|| Waite, Rec. Cant. Mus., vol. 1. 1907.
«f GUI Smiths. Miscell. Coll.. vol. 19. 1880, p. 222.
198 Transactions.
It was the evident intention of the authors to allude to these cones in
naming the species, for on the plate accompanying the description the
figures are designated Oreosoma coniferum, whereas in the text the name
Oreosoma atlanticu?n is used.
The New Zealand example exhibits characters which are not referred
to in the description of the Atlantic specimen, and these will be men-
tioned later. The following is .a description of the fish taken at Lyall
Bay :—
D. VI, 30 ; A. Ill, 28 ; V. I, 7 ; P. 20 ; C. 13 + 4 ; L. lat, 90.
Length of head, 2-64 ; height of body, 1-3 ; length of caudal, 4-7 in
the length ; diameter of eye, 2-27 ; interorbital space, 2-63 ; and length
of snout, 2-94 in the head.
Head compressed, eyes lateral, the supra- and post-orbital ridges armed
with a number of denticles, of which one in the middle of the series is
larger, forming a short spine. Preopercle very oblique ; a ridge across
the opercle. Eyes lateral. Interorbital space flat. Nostrils close together,
in front of the upper anterior margin of the orbit ; the anterior nostril
large, directed forward. Jaws equal ; mouth protractile ; the cleft sub-
vertical. Dentary produced downwards into an acute angle. The maxilla,
whose length is less than the diameter of the eye, scarcely reaches the
anterior margin of the orbit when the mouth is closed. Gills 4, a small
orifice behind the fourth; gill-rakers moderate, bristle-like; pstudo-
branchiae present.
Teeth. — The teeth are extremely small and villiform in character. A
narrow band exists in the lower jaw, but no teeth are to be found in the
upper jaw ; they are present on the vomer, but there are none on the
tongue or palatines.
The upper and hinder parts of the body are compressed and normal ;
a pronounced median keel runs from the occipital region to the origin of
the dorsal fin, lying between the swellings on which the dorsal cones are
situated. The whole of the ventral portion of the body is enormously,
naturally, and permanently distended, so that a section across the body
is not unlike that of Lactophrys trigonvs.
Fins. — The dorsal fin arises midway between the end of the snout
and the base of the caudal. Its spines are short, the second and longest
being little more than half the diameter of the eye. The first spine is
very short, and the second and following are graduated. The longest
rays occur behind the middle of the second dorsal, and are nearly as long
as the eye. The anal spines are quite small, almost hidden within the
folds of the posterior dilatations of the abdomen. The rays are similar to
those of the dorsal, but have a somewhat more posterior hinder insertion.
The ventrals are noticeably separated, and of considerable length, the
slender spine being one-half longer and the first ray twice the length of
the orbit. The pectoral is rounded, and its length is equal to the diameter
of the eye. The feeble tail is also rounded, and the depth of the slender
peduncle is less than half the eye-diameter.
Scales. — The scales are nowhere imbricate, but form a mosaic, the com-
ponents varying greatly in different parts of the body. They are minute
on the interorbital space, small on the cheeks and opercles, and on the
upper and hinder part of the body. They are larger immediately behind
the opercles and on the sides of the body, while those on the ventral surfaces
are tubercular. All are 6-sided and concentrically striated. The lateral
fine is well marked : it originates behind the operc1^ and rises above the
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate X I
■e
£>
SJ
""*
,c
^
=
%
05
p
o
J
h*
^
H
Z
1
Face p. 19S.\
Waite. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 199
pectoral fin to a point in advance of the first dorsal cone ; it thence drops
to the mid-line of the body and passes along the middle of the caudal
peduncle.
Cones. — The remarkable cones which give the fish such a striking appear-
ance are disposed as follows : The swellings on each side of the dorsal ridge
above referred to support 2 pairs of small size ; the hinder pair lie at the
base of the dorsal spines, and are directed outwards ; the pair in front of
these have a more upward aspect. All the other cones exist on the ventral
portion of the body ; the largest form a series of 5 pairs disposed along
the lateral margin, the centre one on each side being the largest, and
directed straight from the body, those before and behind being diver-
gent. A smaller cone is placed immediately in front of each ventral fin,
and a similar, though larger one, on each side of the vent between these
ventral and anal cones. There are 3 pairs of much smaller ones, which
thus complete the vertical armament. In these latter each cone is set
close to its fellow. The mosaics in the mid-ventral line form small tubercles,
but quite distinct in size and character from the true cones, which, as will
be seen, number 12 pairs — namely, 2 dorsal, 5 lateral, 2 sub ventral, and
3 ventral. The cones, which arise from an enlarged series of mosaics,
are as high as, or higher than, their diameter, and are sculptured with both
radiating and transverse striae, the former being straight and the latter
wavy. The area between each radial is flat. These correspond in number
with the basal mosaics, of which there are 16 surrounding the largest cone
—namely, that in the middle of the lateral series.
Colours. — The ground-colour is brownish-yellow, and the markings
form wide open reticulations, consisting of a black line merging into bluish-
grey, which extends so as to nearly obscure the ground-colour. The latter
remains fairly pronounced on the cheeks, the lower edge of the caudal
peduncle, and an area at the base of the anal fin, due to the absence of
markings on these parts. The membranes of the first dorsal fin and of
the anterior ventral rays are black ; the other fins are colourless.
Length, 80 mm.
One specimen only.
There is a temptation to give the Pacific fish a distinct specific name,
not only on account of certain described differences in the two known
individuals, but also in consideration of the widely separated habitats,
the one being taken in the Atlantic and the other in the Pacific Ocean.
The fish must have rather limited powers of progression, for its locomotory
fins are feeble, and the general conformation of the body is opposed to
even moderate progress. The original specimen was supposed to have
been taken in the surface-net, and, as the New Zealand specimen was
secured alive on the beach, it becomes fairly evident that we have either
two very closely allied species, or, like Tetragonurus, a single species of
pelagic habit, of which examples have been obtained from both Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans without any intermediate occurrences.
The differences noted between the two specimens may be due to certain
characters in the smaller one having been overlooked. It is unlikely, for
example, that the 3 spines preceding the anal rays were absent, or that
the ventrals had only " le nombre ordinaire de 1/5." Other differences
may be noted in the descriptions of the dental armature. The French
authors apparently found teeth in both jaws, whereas my specimen exhibits
them in the lower jaw only. There is agreement as to the presence of
teeth on the vomer, but I find none on the palatines, their presence being
200 Transactions.
affirmed by Cuvier and Valenciennes.* They describe the colour as that
of cedar wood; but do not refer to any markings, though the illustration
shows traces of large reticulations very similar though less extensive than
in our specimen.
Guntherf" originally included this species with the perch-like fishes, but
afterwards accepted Lowe's { suggestion that it was a member of the Zeidae.
An examination of this second specimen supports the conclusion which is
adopted by Goode and Bean,§ who give the genus the status of a sub-
family, Oreosominae. Though Cuvier and Valenciennes counted only 5
rays in the ventral fin, the fact of our example having 7 brings the species
into still closer agreement with the Zeidae. The genus differs from other
members of the family by having the dorsal spines very short (shorter
than the rays), and in the development of large cones in place of the
usual bony plates, though they cannot be said exactly to replace them.
Boulenger|| is of opinion that Oreosoma is the young form of a fish
allied to Cyttus. It is admitted that the characters of the fish are of
the bizarre nature commonly associated with very young Scombroid and
other fishes, and such might be found in examples but little over an inch
in length. I am not aware, however, if such characters are likely to
persist so completely in a specimen over 3 in. in length.
9. Eurumetopos johnstonii Morton.
Plate XII.
The Australian Museum. Sydney, possesses a mounted example of
Eurumetopos johnstonii, sent from Tasmania by the late Alexander Morton,
the author of the genus and species. He thought it was a Serranid, stating
that " it bears in many respects a close resemblance to the aUgarus." I
examined the specimen referred to, many years ago, and came to the
conclusion that it was referable to the Stromateidae. It is, however, only
quite recently that I have been able to satisfy myself on this point, and
to ascertain more closely its systematic position and affinities.
Last month (August 1911) Messrs. Dennis Brothers, of Christchurch,
sent a fish to me for determination, with the remark that, notwithstanding
their long experience in the New Zealand fish trade, they had never seen
one like it before. On making inquiries I found that the specimen was
one of five which the firm had secured, and that other fish-merchants had
also obtained examples of the same kind, but had readily disposed of them
before I became aware of the fact. Somewhat later the daily newspapers
contained an announcement that some large fishes were being obtained
at the Chatham Islands, and, though no one was able to give them a name,
they proved to be excellent eating, and it was proposed to put them on the
market as a regular commodity From the popular description supplied
I strongly suspected that the Chatham Island fishes would be found to
be of the same species as those sent to Christchurch, and therefore enlisted
the kind aid of Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of the Dominion Museum, as
the fish companies operating at the Chatham Islands ship their catches
* Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. 4, 1829, p. 515, pi. 99 (O. coni-
fer um).
fGunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., vol. I. 1859, p. 214 ; vol. 2, I860; p. 396.
X Lowe, " Fishes of Madeira," p. xii.
§ Goode and Bean, Oceanic Ichth., 1895, p. 228, and fig.
il Boulenger Camb. Nat. Hist. Fishes. 1904. p. 683.
Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIV.
Plate XII
z 3
o
m s
H
03
Face p. 200]
VVaite. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 201
direct to Wellington. Mr. Hamilton was fortunate in being able to secure
a specimen for me, which confirmed my supposition, and it is this larger
specimen which forms the basis of the subjoined description.
T understand that the occurrence of the fishes at the Chatham Islands
was of short duration only, and that, though they were quite plentiful at
the period of their appearance, they are not now to be obtained.
During a subsequent visit to Sydney I was permitted to re-examine
the specimen of Eurmnetopos johnstonii, and compared with it a cast
of the smaller of our two examples. I found them to be specifically
identical.
The Tasmanian specimen exhibits the following characters :■ —
B. VII; D. VIII, I, 20; A. Ill, 15.
The length of the head equals the depth of the body, and the pectoral
is as long as the head.
The radial formula, as given by Morton* in his original description,
appears to have been slightly mutilated by the printer, producing a
very misleading result, which in all probability accounts for the non-
recognition of the affinities of the species for such a long period. The
figures D, 9 1-9, were intended for D. 9, 19, or. as now more usually
written, D. VIII, I, 19. The anal formula is III, 13.
The following is a description of the Chatham Island specimen :
B. VII ; D. VIII, I, 20 ; A. Ill, 15 ; V. I, 5 ; P. 20 ; C. 24 + 6.
L. lat. 84 ; L. tr. 18 + 34. Vert. 10 + 12 = 22.
Length of head, 3-0 ; height of body.. 2-7 ; and length of caudal, 5-5
in the length ; diameter of eye, 5-2 ; interorbital space, 2-7 ; and length
of snout, 4-0 in the head.
Head rounded, compressed, naked and porous above, tumid over the
nostrils ; the latter are close together, the anterior being circular, while
the posterior one is an oblique slit lying midway between the end of the
snout and the eye ; snout truncate ; the interorbital is broad and convex ;
the eye is relatively low in the head and is somewhat overhung by an obtuse
ridge. The cleft of the mouth is horizontal, and the maxilla, which has
a supplemental bone, extends to below the second third of the orbit ; its
distal portion is rounded and its width nearly half the diameter of the eye.
The opercular bones are thin and entire, and the angle of the preopercle is
greatly, though roundly, produced. Gill-membranes united far forward,
not attached to the isthmus ; gill-rakers long, 21 in number on the first
arch, of which 16 are on the lower limb ; pseudobranchiae present, but
ill-developed.
Teeth. — The teeth are confined to the jaws, the rest of the mouth being
edentulous ; they are small, set close together, and form a single series
along the whole margins of both jaws.
Fins. — The dorsal fin commences over the edge of the operculum; the
fourth and fifth spines are the longest, three-fourths the diameter of the
eye ; the last spine is continuous with the rays, the anterior of which is the
longest and twice the diameter of the eye. The anal commences beneath
the eighth dorsal ray, and is similar in character to the dorsal, terminating
more posteriorly, however. The pectoral is falcate, and its seventh ray is
as long as the head. The ventral spine is long and slender, its length one-
half more than the diameter of the eye ; the length of the first ray is twice
the orbital diameter ; the fin lies below the pectoral. Caudal emarginate ;
* Morton, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm.. 1888, p. 76, with plate.
*
202 Transactions.
the peduncle long and narrow, its depth one-fourth more than the diameter
of the eye.
Scales. — Head generally naked, but with scales on the opercles ; upper
part of head with a spongy porous integument. The body-scales are not
markedly deciduous, are of moderate size, and finely denticulated ; they
extend on to all the vertical fins. The lateral line does not follow the curve
of the back, excepting for its anterior half, the hinder part being almost
straight.
Length, 945 mm. The type was 990 mm., doubtless measured to the
end of the longest caudal ray.
Colours. — Steel-blue above, silvery beneath.
The genus Etirumetopos, of which E. johnslonii is the type and only
known species, may be thus defined : Body oblong, compressed ; snout
obtuse ; mouth large ; teeth present only in the jaws. Premaxillaries
slightly protractile, maxillaries with supplemental bone ; they are not
entirely concealed by the preorbitals when the mouth is closed. Opercular
bones thin, entire ; branchiostegals 7 ; gill-membranes united far forward,
not attached to the isthmus, pseudobranchiae developed ; gill-rakers long ;
scales of moderate size, fairly adherent, lateral line not concurrent with
the dorsal profile. A single dorsal fin with about IX, 20 rays ; anal with
about III, 15 rays ; pectoral pointed, with 20 rays ; ventrals below the
pectorals. Vertebrae 22.
The genus appears to be sufficiently established, and finds its nearest
ally in Psenopsis Gill, differing in the larger mouth, the character of the
maxillaries, the more adherent scales of relatively smaller size and their
development on to the bases of the dorsal and anal fins. The lateral line
is not concurrent with the dorsal profile, and the number of rays in the
vertical fins is noticeably smaller.
The following notes are supplied for the convenience of those wishing
to make a further comparison : In 1862 Gill* erected the genus Psenopsis
for Trachynotus anomalus Schlegel, a species taken in Japanese seas.f
The affinities of the fish were previously recognized by Bleeker (1853), J
who placed it in the genus Psenes. Regan § has more recently added
Bathyseriola cyanea Alcock,|| from Indian seas, to the genus Psenopsis,
remarking, " There can be no question that these two species belong to
the same gemis, although their relationship has not hitherto been suspected,
and the two species are very closely allied."
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate X.
Aegoeonichtl ys avpelii Clarke. Less than half natural siz<\
Plate XI.
Oreosoma atlanticum Cuvier and Valenciennes. Nearly twice natural size.
Plate XII.
Eurwudopos johnslonii Morton. One-fifth natural size.
* Gill, Proc. Acad. Phil., 1862, p. 157.
t Schlegel, Fauna Japon, Poiss., 1850, p. 107, pi. 57, fig. 2.
X Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., vol. 26, 1853, p. 104.
§ Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), vol. 10, 1902, p. 130 (also see for further references.)
|| Alcock, Cat. Indian Deep-sea Fishes, 1899, p. 43, pi. 17, fig. 1.
[The three papers last quoted are the only ones I have been able to consult, but
Mr. McCulloch has kindly assisted me by referring to others in the Australian Museum
library.]
Howes. — New Species of Lepidoptera.
203
Laeentia cinnabari. X 2.
Art. XXI. — New Species of Lepidoptera, with Notes on the Larvae and
Pupae of some New Zealand Butterflies.
By George Howes, F.E.S., F.L.S.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 1st August, 1911.]
The following are descriptions of some new moths recently collected in
the Otago Province.
Larentia cinnabari sp. nov.
Expanse — in <$, 20 mm. ; in $, 22 mm. Forewings pale orange, marked
with brown and light ochre. Basal area brown, extending to about £,
where it is edged with a dark line, then a pale-ochreous thin line, which
is followed by pale orange to ^. A dark-brown area from about f to f,
edged on both sides with a pale-ochre line. This brown area is bent out
towards termen at centre of wing, and
slightly constricted below. Subterminal
line appears as dark shading on costa,
and very faintly below. An oblique
shaded patch below apex. With the ex-
ception of these markings, from § to
termen is pale orange. There is a termi-
nal series of small dark dots. Cilia
rmrplisk-brown, darker at base. Hind-
wings uniform orange, with slight dark
dots along termen. Cilia purplish-brown. In the £ the markings are the
same as in the 6*> hut the moth is paler. Considerable variation in depth
of colouring and extent of the dark markings showed in the specimens
taken.
Appears to be close to bulbidata, which it resembles in appearance and
habits. I am indebted to my brother, Mr. A. A. Howes, for the finding
of this moth, he having first noticed it in the same locality in the previous
year.
Taken in fair numbers amongst tussock in swampy places in the
Garvie Mountains and at the Cinnabar Gold-sluicing Company's claim,
in November, 1910.
Dasyuris transaureus sp. nov.
Four specimens ; 19 mm. (§ in.). Palpi long, with dense long hairs.
Antennae simple in both sexes. Forewings light ochre, marked with dark
blown and golden orange. Dark-brown area
at base, followed by a thin ochre line. A
small golden patch continuing in dark brown
to dorsum. A thin ochre line at £, followed
by a wider dark-brown area. An equally
wide ochre line at J, followed by a broad
dark-brown area, which is interrupted at
middle by a golden triangle. A thin ochre
line follows, edged terminally with golden,
i . , . . n ° ■, • i • i i Dasyuris transaureus. x 2.
which is indented on terminal side, where
the veins cross. A dark-brown area to termen, with a faint subternvnal
204
Transactions.
line in ochre. The veins crossing this area marked in golden. Cilia dark
ochre, barred with brown. The markings continue on through the hind-
wings, the only difference being that there is more golden colouring, and the
cilia are light ochre barred with brown.
The small size of this insect, together with the triangular - shaped
golden marking cutting across the other markings, makes this moth
very distinct. It is with some hesitation I place it in the Dasyuris.
It may have to be removed later.
Taken on the Garvie Mountains, near Nevis, 20th November, 1910.
Morrisonia pansicolor sp. nov.
Three females, two males ; 29 mm. Head and thorax ochreous, slightly
tinged with rufous. Antennae filiform, rufous. Crests well defined, dotted
with rufous. Abdomen
ochreous, in $ dotted
with minute dark specks,
ochreous-rufous in <£, with
strong crests, especially the
anal. Forewings ochreous,
suffused with rufous ; all
markings rufous. Subbasal
line double, much broken,
double line at ^ bending
strongly outwards at centre
of wing. A mark on cost a
at J, followed by two marks over reniform, which continue through reniform
as faint jagged lines across wing.
by a series of dots.
Morrisonia pansicolor x 2.
An indistinct subterminal line formed
Morrisonia mollis, x 2.
Orbicular obsolete.
Reniform filled with
dark rufous. Veins
faintly marked with
rufous. Cilia ochreous.
Hindwings ochreous,
centre of wing clouded
with rufous brown.
Discoidal spot well
defined. A faint series
of subterminal dots.
Cilia whitish-ochreous, with a darker line at base. Underside pale ochreous.
Curved post-medial line across both wings. Reniform and discoidal lunule
well defined.
Taken in November, at Dunedin, at " treacle."
The moth is so close to mollis that the first specimens I took I
thought were that species. Subsequent captures, which gave me both
sexes in both species, placed the matter beyond doubt.
My last illustration of mollis being so unsatisfactory, I am giving
another drawing of it. along with paniscolor. In mollis the reniform is
clear, in paniscolor filled with dark rufous.
Morrisonia sequens sp. nov.
6*, 31 mm. ; $. 34 mm. Head and thorax grey, strongly crested.
Antennae filiform. Abdomen ochreous grey, crests slight. Forewings
Howes. — New Species of Lepidoptera.
205
M.OKRISONIA SEQDENS. X 2.
bright grey, irrorated with fuscous. A jagged subbasal line, strongly
maiked on submedian fold, where it turns abruptly towards base. A
dark line across wing at J, double, space between double lines grey (not
irrorated), a dark mark on
costa at |, followed by two
more above reniform. Sub-
terminal line faint and suf-
fused. A terminal series of
black points ; a few dark
points outline veins. Orbi-
cular faint, but with a well-
defined line along lower edge.
Reniform defined by a dark
line below and on terminal
edge. Cilia grey, mixed with
fuscous. Hind -wings brown, darker towards termen. Cilia brown, with fine
paler line at base. Tips grey-white.
Taken at Whakarewarewa, North Island, on the 15th February, 1910,
by Dr. G. B. Longstaff, F.E.S., whom I have to thank for the privilege
of describing this moth.
The well-defined line below reniform and orbicular readily distin-
guishes this from phricias, which it is very close to — much closer than
M. longslaffii. Neither has it the ferruginous markings of the latter.
Morrisonia pascoei sp. nov.
6A, 38-40 mm. ; $, 36-38 mm.
<$. Antennae filiform, reddish-brown. Palpi, legs, and face reddish-
brown. Thorax and crests reddish-brown with slight fuscous in oration.
Crests well developed. Abdomen slightly fuscous, with crests strong ;
ochreous at sides. Anal tuft well developed, reddish-ochreous. Forewings
red-brown with fuscous markings. Subbasal line double, very indistinct ;
a double line at I, also indistinct; another before reniform, more plainly
marked towards dorsum. Two faint jagged lines, then faint subterminal line
Morrisonia pascoei. x 2.
hardly traceable at apex but outlined by a dark suffusion on both sides
at about vein 7. then forming two nearly equal dentate marks, then
again suffused on both sides at about vein 3 to close to torn us. Reni-
form deep fuscous, slightly edged on outer side with a thin ochre line.
Orbicular obsolete. Veins faintly marked with fuscous. Cilia light
206 Transactions.
reddish-brown, with a lighter line at base. Hindwings fuscous-brown
with red-brown suffusion along termen. Cilia red-brown, with ochreous
line at base, and ochreous tips. Discoidal lunule shows faintly.
?. Forewings ■ pale ochreous. Marks as in male, but slightly less
defined. Cilia lighter than in male. Hindwings lighter than in male.
The underside of both sexes is well marked with a well - defined
reniform marking and discoidal lunule, also a well-defined line at about
§ passing right across both wings. In both sexes varieties occur with
a strong fuscous suffusion from base above dorsum to near tornus, as
seen in some specimens of Morrisonia omoplaca. Specimens such as
these might be better to illustrate from, but apparently are not the
typical form. The fore wing of the moth being dark in colour, with
few determined markings, makes a poor illustration.
Apparently close to rubescens, but more strongly crested, deeper in
colour in the $, lighter in colour in the $. The subterminal line in
rubescens is more deeply indented than in pascoei.
The first specimen came to " sugar " at Orepuki, 1st September,
1910 (a $). In November of the same year- 1 took another at Queens-
town (<?), and this year Mr. M. 0. Pasco has been kind enough to send me
about twenty taken at " treacle " at Queenstown in October. As it is
through Mr. Pasco's kindness I have the chance of describing from such
a good series, I am naming the moth after him.
The Larvae and Pupae of some New Zealand Butterflies.
In Hudson's " New Zealand Moths and Butterflies " we have details
of the life-histories of most of our butterflies. The following additional
notes may prove of interest. Owing to inability to devote special time
to the larvae taken, the information here given is but scrappy and in-
complete.
Chrysophanus boldenarum.
This little butterfly appears to be commonest on the Canterbury river-
beds. It frequents patches of Donatia, flitting in dozens over the heated
shingle patches. The first specimens appear about October, and I have
taken it as late as March.
On the 20th November, 1909, I found larvae and pupae of this butter-
fly under stones in the Makikihi River bed. I was successful in rearing
three. These all emerged on or close to the 18th December, 1909. In
November, 1910, I again
found the larvae at St.
Andrew's, Canterbury.
A point which appears
to me of great interest was
that in each case the larvae Larva,
and pupae were under Chuysophanus boldenakum.
stones that also sheltered
ants' nests, and at least two of the chrysalids had ants running over them
when I lifted the stone. Both these chrysalids produced butterflies. As
certain of the Lycaenidae in other countries have been taken in conjunction
with ants, this point in connection with one of our New Zealand butter-
flies promises to be worth investigating.
Howes. — New Species of Lepidoptera.
207
In appearance the caterpillar is rather slug-like, being very " deep '*
for its length, with the head small.
The few taken showed considerable variation, some appearing mainly-
green, others almost red. The sides were dull green, ornamented with
oblique stripes, which varied in the different specimens from dark brick-
red to pink. The hairs showed prominently, being long and numerous.
Pupa. — The pupa was about 6 mm. in length, and stout for its length.
The head and thorax were pale green, the abdominal segments brick-red.
A double pink line dorsally. According to my observations, no trace of
the wing-markings showed through before emergence.
Chrysophanus sallustius.
Although common throughout the South Island, this butterfly does
not appear to be as variable here as in the North Island. The first
specimens are in flight here early in November, the last at the end of
April.
When collecting near the Upper Hutt with Mr. H. Simmonds he took
a single larva of this species when beating Coprosma for Coleoptera, and
this larva he kindly handed over to me. It was about 12 mm. long, slug-
like, bright green, with a crimson streak down the back. The caterpillar
Pupa of Chrysophanus sallustius after Emergence, x 2.
pupated in a half-curled leaf almost immediately. The pupa was pale
green with a paler line down the back, and was 10 mm. in length, and
stout for its length.
Argyrophenga antipodum.
This butterfly seems to be confined to the South Island, frequenting
only the tussock country. Mr. Hudson, in his " New Zealand Moths and
Butterflies," gives a description of the larva and pupa.
In February, 1911, when collecting near Fairlie, I was fortunate enough
to secure a single fully fed larva of this species. It remained in the
collecting-box for three days before I had time to further examine it,
and I then found that in the interval it had changed to the chrysalis.
Eight days later the butterfly emerged. The caterpillar, in shape, colour-
ing, and markings, closely resembled the chrysalis.
Pupa. — Length, just f in., but, being late in the season, this specimen
was probably undersized ; broad for its length ; two horns tussock-colour,
Pupa of Argyrophenga antipodum. x 2.
edged with white, projected from the head, and a similar horn from the
tail. A white line from front of head along thorax, then splitting into
208 Transactions.
two thin white lines to enclose a dark-greenish dorsal line. A thin red
line in conjunction with a white line from tip of frontal horn to tip of tail
horn. Two fainter lines from wing-cover to tip of abdomen. A white
line edged both sides with red from centre of wing-case, not reaching to
end of abdomen. A dark line with a white line below along the top of
wings. Veins of future wings clearly outlined. As the insect neared
emergence the dark spots on the wings showed plainly through the pupa
skin.
Correction.
In the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. 43, 1911,
pp. 127, 128, I find I have carelessly written " lines " where it should
be " mm." Unfortunately, this not only makes the description read
wrongly as to the wing-expanpe, but has also mislead those responsible
for the reproduction of the illustrations, so that these have been printed
much over their natural size.
Art. XXII.— The Raised Beaches <>j Caps Turakirae.
By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
Plates XIII, XIV.
Cape Turakirae is the north-western point facing Cape Palliser. the two
capes enclosing that noble stretch of water known as Palliser Bay. The
remarkable geological and botanical features of Turakirae hitherto appear
to have escaped the attention they merit, and it is with the hope of
remedying this neglect that this paper is written.
The Orongorongo River, near the mouth of which is situated Mr. Riddi-
ford's homestead, cuts through a series of raised beaches, now more or less
obscured by drifting sand or overgrown by herbage. They are, moreover,
composed of finer material — mostly coarse sand — than those same beaches
a mile nearer the cape. Their finer nature is accounted for by the fact that
the rivers would bring down quantities of fine debris, which would be
thrown up by the sea. Three beaches are here to be distinguished, and,
as their altitude is the same, they are undoubtedly of the same age as those
three hereafter described as being nearer the sea. The beach presumably
elevated at the time of the 1855 earthquake is here very well developed.
The influence of the fineness of beach-particles on the flora will be presently
noticed. It is not until one has crossed the river, and proceeded a mile
or so towards Palliser Bay, that the eye of the observer is arrested by the
extraordinary physiographical aspect of the country lying between the
track at the base of the steep hillside and the sea. The track follows a
course close to the foot of the hills, about 100 ft. above sea-level, and
between this and the sea is a stretch of rocky country varying from 250 to
400 yards in width, and extending some two or three miles, narrowing to
nothing ou the further side of the cape. This rocky plain consists mostly
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol XLIV.
Ptatf. XIII.
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Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. XL1V.
Plate XIV.
Aston. — Raised Beaches of (Jape Turakirae. 209
of large boulders 3 ft. to 8 ft. in diameter, but running roughly parallel with
the sea throughout the length of the boulder-strewn plain are two excellently
defined shingle beaches. These stand out most conspicuously, and form
natural roadways along which one may drive. For the greater part the
shingle presents an appearance differing little from that of beaches which
often exist now at the ocean's marge. In many places the shingle is, how-
ever, overgrown with Muehlenbeckia complexa, or with grasses and other
plants. The main impression left on one's mind is that marvellously little
alteration has taken place in the peopling of these areas by plants, and in
the external appearance of the shingle generally, in the hundreds of years
which have probably elapsed since each was rapidly elevated. The survival
of the beaches as shingle involves the fact that it is composed of the harder
portions of the country rock, and which would hence, in the equable
climate, offer a considerable resistance to the weathering influences ;
isolated by boulder plains on all sides, little dust could blow in and form
soil between the interstices, and without soil little atmospheric moisture
could be retained. Only specially adapted shingle -plants, such as
Muehlenbeckia, could, therefore, hope to survive in such a station.
Happily, we are not entirely in the dark as to the rapidity with which
these beaches may be elevated beyond the reach of the breakers. It is
well known that the coast at Mukumuku was elevated 9 ft. during the
earthquakes of 1855 (see Crawford, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Essay, vol. 1, p. 18).
Knowing this, the author carefully searched the boulder-strewn shore a
little above high-water mark, and was rewarded by finding traces of a
shingle beach about that altitude above high-water mark. Further search
nearer Mukumuku showed a long strip of shingle beach quite as well
developed as the older beaches. The fact that the sea is now breaking on
boulders and monoliths somewhat discounts the thought that beach No. 1
may be a mere storm beach. Exploring the country adjacent to the hills,
two much older shingle beaches were found. These nearly everywhere
have been obhterated by the debris carried down by temporary creeks from
the steep hillsides, the site of the older beaches being now occupied by fans
of angular shingle, mixed with finer detritus, many acres in extent, which
may or may not support a flora. This recent alluvium has buried these
two older beaches many feet below the surface, but where fragments of
them remain one is again struck with the extremely recent appearance
of the beach, as Plate XIV, fig. 1, truly depicts. The interesting fact that
the younger of these beaches is that more thickly populated by a flora is
probably accounted for by the difference in size of the component stones,
which explanation must also suffice for the fact that much of the newer fan-
material supports dense formations of herbage or arboreal growth. Five
distinct shingle beaches have now been mentioned, which for the sake of
ease of reference may be designated by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and £, No. 1
being the youngest (the 1855) beach and No. 5 the oldest. Observations
taken with a surveying aneroid show that the level of each of these beaches
is practically constant along its entire length — that is to say, beach No. 1
is approximately 9 ft. (see Plate XIII, fig. 4), beach No. 2 is 40 ft., beach
No. 3 is 60 ft. (see Plate XIV, fig. 2), beach No. 4 is 80 ft. (see Plate XIII,
fig. 2), and beach No. 5 is 95 ft. (see Plate XIV. fig. 1) above high-water
mark.
The material of which all this elevated country is composed has so far
been roughly classified as boulders and shingle, but there is a third most
extraordinary component, the solitary monoliths which stand out some-
210 Transaction*.
times as much as 15 ft. above the surrounding country, enabhng a compre-
hensive view of it to be obtained from their summits. There are no mono-
liths or disproportionately sized boulders on the beaches, with a few
unimportant exceptions. Plate XIV, fig. 1 , shows a few large boulders have
rolled, perhaps comparatively recently, on or near beach No. 5. These mono-
liths are often very much undercut, and present the appearance of having
rolled into the positions they now occupy, rather than of having been
weathered into their present shape by wave-action. Where the sea broke
at the tide-limits a shingle beach would form ; above and below the tide-
limits less weathering would occur. Sudden elevation would remove an
area beyond reach of the waves, and as this was repeated the alternation
of shingle and boulder is thus accounted for. Possibly the original relation
of shore to sea-floor was that of a perpendicular or overhanging cliff with
the floor projected at an obtuse angle from the base of it. Successive
movements of the earth might dislodge much of the cliff-material, and
build up a submarine platform. One would like to find some explanation
for the fact that these rolled monoliths occur such a distance from the base
of the present cliffs. It is not easy to see how faulting at the base of the
cliffs can have been a factor in the uplift, as this would have to take place
in a semicircular sweep round the cape, and there is plenty of evidence of
recent dislodgment of large masses of rock from the hillside. Earthquakes
may have played a considerable part in loosening large masses of rock.
One rolled monolith examined was roughly cubical in shape, and its side
measured 15 ft., its estimated weight being 250 tons.
The age of these beaches is a most fascinating theme to speculate upon.
The fresh appearance of the shingle makes it hard to realize that centuries
must have elapsed since they were removed beyond the reach of the tide
Mr. Elsdon Best informs me of a Maori tradition which relates that the
Miramar Peninsula, previously an island, was elevated about four hundred
years ago to its present position, which is evidence, of a kind, of coast-
elevation within historic times, prior to 1855. (See also Cotton, p. 245 ( f this
volume.)
If the geological features of this area are intensely interesting, the
botanical features are even more so. Within a few hundred yards may
be found the plants of the arid rock-faces, the fresh-water swamps and
ponds, the sea littoral, the grass meadows, and the forest.
Starting from the sea-shore a little above high-water mark, in a situation
well moistened by sea-spray are found the usual halophytic plants, Salieornia
australis Sol., Samolus rcpens Pers., Triglochin striatum var. filifolium Buch.,
Apium prostratum Labill., Selliera radicans Cav., Scirpus nodosus Rottb.,
Gar ex ternaria Forst., J uncus effusus Linn. These are growing between
boulders 3 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, which formation occupies some 10 or
20 yards until the shingle of beach No. 1 is reached. On this grow the
beautiful Glaucium flavum Crantz (naturalized), Senecio lautus Forst., Apium
prostratum Labill., Poa anceps Forst., Calystcgia soldandla R. Br., and the
naturalized Picris echioides Linn, and Plantago lanceolata Linn.
Now comes a stretch of big boulders and monoliths, amongst which
are growing in very wet or very dry stations the following : Leptocarpus
simplex A. Rich., Mariscus ustulatus Clarke, Phormium Cookianum Le Jobs,
Selliera radicans Cav., Raoulia australis Hook, f., Muehlenbech'a complexa
Meissn., Olearia Solandri Hook, f., Cassinia leptophylla R. Br., Plagianthus
divaricatus Forst., Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook, f., Arundo conspicua
Forst., Euphorbia glauca Forst., Clematis Colcnsoi Hook f., Epilobium
Aston. — Raised Beaches of Cape Turahirae. 211
erectum D. Petrie, Deyeuxia Forsteri Kuntk., Poa anceps Forst., P. caespi-
tosa, Forst., Myoporum and Coprosma Baueri Endl. shrubs (occasionally),
Australina pusilla Gaud., Adiantum affine Willd., and the naturalized
Picris echioides Linn., Nasturtium officinale R. Br., Myosotis palustris Linn.
Parts of this rockery may not be so wet, and may then contain Lepto-
spermum scoparium Forst., L. ericoides A. Rich., Coprosma rhamnoides
A. Cunn., G. robusta Raoul, C. parviflora Hook, f., Pimelea laevigata Gaertn.,
Olearia Cunninghamii Hook, f., and a sward of introduced Medicago lu-
pulina Linn., and Hypochaeris radicata Linn., and some Caucalis nodosa
Scop., Cnicus lanceolatus Willd., Rosa rubiginosa Linn, occurs.
This boulder terrace occupies a width of from 50 to 150 yards, and at
the further side of it an abrupt rise consisting of shingle is encountered. This
is beach No. 2, and growing on it is often a sward of naturalized Rumex
acetosella Linn., Lolium perenne Linn., Festuca myuros Linn., Hordeum
murinum Linn., and Erodium cicutarium L'Herit., or a thicket of Silybum
Marianum Gaertn. ; while the native plants present are Muehlenbeckia com-
plexa Meissn., Aciphylla squarrosa Forst., Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook f.,
Bulbinella Hookeri Benth., Plagianthus divaricatus Forst., Olearia Solandri
Hook f., Coprosma propinqua A. Cunn. At the Orongorongo River, where
the beach is composed of coarse sand, it is almost covered in parts with
the beautiful silvery Raoulia australis Hook f., with Zoysia pungens Willd.
growing through it. Near Mukumuku Stream this plant covers a sandhill
some 30 ft. high, which can easily be- picked out by its colour some three
miles away.
Towards the. north-east end of these beaches, on the landward side,
just above No. 2 beach, are two ponds. The vegetation surrounding and
growing in the larger of these presents considerable contrasts. On the
dry shingle of the beach characteristic rounded clumps of Muehlenbeckia
complexa Meissn. dominate that position. In wet ground, nearer the pond,
Mariscus ustulatus Clarke abounds. Nearer still is Eleocharis acuta R. Br.
and plants of Rumex crispus Linn. (natd.). The entire margin of the
pond is fringed with a yellow Conferva, and the whole of the pond itself
is filled with a dense dark-red growth of Myriophyllum elatinoides Gaud,
and a little Potamogeton Cheesemanii Bennett. The landward shore of
the pond is covered by Eleocharis and Typha angustifolia Linn., with
some Lep'ocarpus simplex A. Rich., Scirpus lacustris Linn., Juncus effusus
Linn., Cladium jun:eum R. Br., Phormium tenax Forst., Car ex ternaria
Forst., Calystegia tuguriorum R. Br. The naturalized Nasturtium officinale
R. Br. and Myosotis palustris Lam. also occur»in considerable quantity.
In the dry boulder -bank or in boggy p'aces above are to be found the rare
Sebaea ova'.a R. Br. (a yellow-flowered gentianous plant now for the first
time recorded from Wellington Province), Poten'illa anserina Linn., Pelar-
gonium a\istrale Jacq., Geranium molle Linn., Hydrocotyle asialica L:nn.,
Vittadinia •australis A. Rich., Gnaphalium collin'xm Libill., Craspedia
uniflora Forst., Festuca multin)dis Hack., Microtis parvifolia R. Br., Linum
monjgyn \tm Forst., Epilobium Billardieranum Ser., Ranunculus hirtus
Banks & Sol., Samolus repens Pers., Galium umbrosum Sol., Euphrasia
cuneata Forst., Haloragis alata Jacq., H. depressa Walp., Lagenophora
pumila Cheesm., Ranunculus rivularis Banks & Sol., Dichelachne crinita
Hook, f., and the naturalized Silene gallica Linn., Briza maxima Linn.,
Cyperus vegetus Willd., Vicia sp. Near Orongorongo Stream Eryngium
vesiculosum Labill. occurs plentifully above the beach. In the centre of
the stony plain, clustering round the monoliths on the upper edge of beach
212 Transaction*.
No. 2, is to be found a little forest, consisting of Corynocarpus (sometimes
18 in. in circumference), Melicytus ramiflorus Forst., Myrsine Urvillei
A. D.C., Coprosma Cunninghamii Hook f., Panax arboreum Forst., Cordy-
line australis Hook, f., Piper excelsum, Forst., Coriaria ruscifolia Linn.,
Asplenium lucidum Forst., Coprosma Baueri Endl., Olearia Cunninghamii
Hook, f., Pcllaea rotundifolium Hook. f. On beach No. 3 flourish most of
the plants mentioned as found on No. 2. Muehlenbeckia complexa Meissn.
is the most characteristic on this beach, which is the best developed of
the five described. Danthonia semiannularis R. Br., and the naturalized
Polycarpon tetraphyllum Linn.. Poa pratensis Linn., and Bromus mollis
Linn, also occur.
The next strip of boulder terrace, between beach No. 3 and beach No. 4,
is most interesting for the number and variety of species it contains.
Some portions consist of boulders 5 ft. to 8 ft. in diameter, and fairly uni-
form in size, and growing among them are Phormium Cookianum L3 Jobs,
P. tenax Forst., Dichondra repens Forst., Epilobium insulare Haussk.,
Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f.. Mariscus ustulatus Clarke, Hydrocotyle
asiatica Linn., H. novae-zelandiae, Dichelachne crinita Hook. f.. Carex
temaria Forst., Astelia nervosa Banks & Sol., Cordyline australis Hook f.,
Leplospcrmum scoparium Forst., Olearia Solandri Hook f., Scirpus prolijer
Rottb... Drosera binata Labill., and the naturalized Ranunculus acris
Linn, and Myosotis palustris Lam. are common. Extensive Phormium
and Typha angustifolia Linn, swamps occur, which also contain J uncus
caespiticius, J. prismatocarpus R. Br.', J. bufonius Linn., J. vaginatus R. Br.,
Schoenus axillaris Poir., and ponds may form. In this area occur most of
the monoliths, the flora of which is utterly distinct from that of the swamp,
pond, or damper ground immediately below them. The most remarkable
constituent of the monoliths' flora is Dendrobium Cunninghamii, which is
growing as a thick sward 6 in. or 7 in. high, and fully exposed to the wind
and sun, a fact first noticed by Colenso in this very spot (see "First Journey
to the Ruahine Range," p. 11). Four other epiphytic orchids are growing
on the rock-faces — Sarcochilus adversus Hook, f., Bulbophyllum pygmaeum
Lindl., Earina mucronata Lindl., and E. suaveolens Lindl. — and yellow clumps
of Scleranthus biflorus Hook, f., the climbing Polypodium serpens Forst., and
Mesembryanthemum australe Sol. In chasms or small clefts or on the tops
some soil has formed, and here are to be found Coprosma Baueri Endl.,
Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook, f., Arthropodium candidum Raoul, Heli-
chrysum filicaule Hook, f., Agropyrum scabrum Beauv., Craspedia uniflora
Forst., Clematis Colensoi Hook, f., Luzula campestris D. C, Festuca multi-
nodis Hack., Poa anceps Forst., Danthonia semiannularis R. Br., Pimelea
laevigata Gaertn., Linum monogynum Forst., Trisetum antarcticum Prim,
Tillaea Sieberiana Schultz, Aciphylla sguarrosa Forst., Rhagodia nutans
R. Br., Thelymitra longifolia Forst., Dichondra repens Forst., Asplenium
flabillifolium Cav., Metrosideros robusta A. Cunn. may even occur.
Above beach No. 3, in wet parts, occur Cotula coronopijolia var. integri-
folia Linn., Ranunculus rivularis Banks & Sol., Eleocharis Cunninghamii
Boeck., J uncus pallidus R. Br., J. maritimus Lam., J. lampocarpus Ehr.,
Carex virgata Sol., C. lucida Boott., Azolla rubra R. Br.. Lobelia anceps
Linn, f., Nertera depressa Banks & Sol. ; and in the drier parts Olearia
Forsteri Hook, f., Prasophyllum Colensoi Hook, f., Urtica ferox Forst.,
Calystegia septum R. Br., Apium prostratum var. filiforme Labill., Rubus
cissoides A. Cunn., Lomaria capensis Willd., and the naturalized Lythrum
hfssopifolium, Linn., Sherardia arvensis Linn., Bromus sterilis Linn.
Aston. — Raised Beaches, of (Jape Turakirae. 213
On beach No. 4, in places, true forest is found. This is nearly a pure
Corynocarpus association. Some of the trees are very old, measuring up to
6 ft. in circumference, and may be two hundred years old. Plate XIV, fig. 1,
shows No. 5 beach with one quick-growing tree, Myoporum laetum Forst,,
on it ; but the Corynocarpus is confined to No. 4 beach, immediately below
and contiguous to No. 5 beach. Where Corynocarpus has not established
itself on No. 4, Muehlenbeckia complexa Meissn. covers the beach (see
Plate XIII, fig. 2). On the slopes of it grow a charming shrubbery of
Pcnnantia corymbosa Forst.. Melicopc ternata Forst., Myoporum laetum
Forst., Sophora tetraptera J. Mull., Pittosporum tenuijolium Banks &
Sol., Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn., Passiflora tetrandra Banks & Sol.,
Cordyline australis Hook f., Clematis Colensoi Hook, f.. Piper excelsum
Forst., among the herbaceous plants being Parietaria debilis Forst.,
Wahlenbergia gracilis A. D. C. W. saxicola A. D. C, and the naturalized
Fumaria muralis Sond.
On beach No. 5 an unusual sight is Muehlenbeckia australis Meissn.
adopting the habit and station affected by its congener M. complexa Meissn..
and scrambling over the horizontal stones, instead of climbing over trees in
its usual manner.
The flora of the fans which have covered up so much of the two oldest
beaches may be briefly described. The oldest material supports pure
woods of Corynocarpus (karaka), often with a pure fringing wood of Myo-
porum. Plate XIII, fig. 1, shows a good example of a karaka grove. The
action of the wind in bunching the topmost leaves and branchlets together
at the southern, seaward, and exposed extremity of the grove, while they
regain their normal habit as they approach the hills, is most instructive.
The younger alluvium supports a dense sward of indigenous Danthonia
pilosa R. Br. and Microlaena stipoides R. Br., and naturalized grasses and
clovers. The youngest fan-material grows chiefly the naturalized thistles
Cnicus lanceolatus Willd. and Silybum Mqrianum Gaertn., the latter often
impenetrable thickets acres in extent. Reference must be made to that
remarkable new species, Muehlenbeckia Asloni Petrie (figured in Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 257). This rare plant grows on the talus slopes and
shingle fans. It is remarkable for the regularity of the angle of branching
(approximately 120 degrees) and for the fact that it is the only New Zealand
species with an erect habit of growth.
The author, who has made twelve visits to the cape altogether, desires
to express his grateful acknowledgments for the support he has received
from Professor Easterfield, Dr. D. Petrie, Messrs. T. F. Cheeseman, J. S.
Tennant, E. Phillips Turner, P. Freyberg, and his brothers (C. G., Cyril, and
W. B. Aston), who have all accompanied him in these lengthy walks at
various dates during the last four years.
Summary.
The raised marine beaches at Cape Turakirae show that there has
occurred comparatively recently, and perhaps within historic times, rapid
elevation of the coast-line near Palliser Bay at least four times prior to
the sudden elevation of 9 ft. which took place in 1855. Violent earth
movements have so altered the physiography of the littoral as to result
in some unusual ecological features.
214 Tran taction*.
Art. XXIII. — The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of Lord Howe,
Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands.
By W. R. B. Oliver.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.]
Whether the main islands of New Zealand, together with certain out-
lying islands, be considered entitled to the full rank of biological
" region," or only that of " subregion," will not affect the contention
which the evidence assembled in this paper is held to support — namely,
that the three groups of islands lying to the north of New Zealand (Lord
Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadecs) should be included within that
region. It can be said that conclusions drawn from the study of one
class of animals may not be trustworthy, and should be checked by con-
clusions deduced from a consideration of other classes. There can be no
questioning the truth of this statement, and I would go even further,
and say that the claims of a district on the border-line of two biological
regions to be included in any one of such regions should be decided upon
an examination of the whole of the fauna and flora of the district in
question, together with a consideration of its geological history. In most
cases this is not practicable, and in this paper I will deal principally
with the avifauna of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands,
only referring incidentally to other sections of the fauna or to the flora,
and endeavour to point out its true relationship to those of the adjacent
biological regions.
In treating of islands, the real test for deciding to which region
they should be attached is to consider the evidence in favour of a land
connection with a part of the region within the bounds of which it is
claimed they should be included. If the probabilities are that the islands
have never been actually joined to a land-mass, then the character of the
fauna and flora must decide. But here certain life-forms, such as pelagic
species, need not be taken into account, except as characterizing a pro-
vince or subregion. Again, the presence of such a group as " accidental
visitors " may be due merely to climatic conditions, and cannot be held
to ally one fauna to another any more than the occasional occurrence of
a stray royal spoonbill or pelican in New Zealand allies the avifauna of
that country to that of Australia, for species of birds cannot often be
dispersed by such accidents.
From a geographical standpoint, the birds of a district may be ar-
ranged according to their life-forms or manner of occurrence into groups.
The ecological groups into which I have divided the birds of Lord Howe,
Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands, and whose numerical strength in
these islands is shown in the following table, would not necessarilv be
the most useful to adopt Avhen treating the avifauna of a large area, but
are, I think, the most convenient for the purpose of this paper.
Ecological Group. Lor J Howe. Norfolk. Kerma lees.
Resident land-birds — Breeding
Sea-birds — Breeding
Visitors —
Sea-birds
Migrants
Occasional
Accidental
Totals ... ... .. 61 53 43
15
19
6
8
11
12
6
5
10
11
7
8
13
6
4
8
5
3
Oliver. — Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and Kerrnadec Islands. 215
Resident land-birds are the most important from a geographical point
of view, as they alone include species whose presence can only be accounted
for by a former land connection. The group sea-birds includes forms
which habitually frequent the open sea, but does not include coastal
genera, such as Larus and Phalacrocorax. Those breeding in the islands
are chiefly circumtropical species, and of no value in determining the
geographic relationships of the avifauna, as their presence depends mainly
on the latitude of the place. Migrants, especially if occurring regularly
and in large numbers, are important as indicating the line of a former
land connection.* Occasional visitors are those which regularly visit the
islands, or have frequently been recorded. They probably belong to
species which are in the habit of wandering far from their ordinary
breeding-places, and possibly frequently cross and recross the Tasman
Sea. Most of them are fairly widely distributed, ranging from the Malay
Archipelago through Australia to New Zealand. Accidental visitors are
stragglers (and I have included doubtful records under this heading).
I wish here to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Basset Hull's
valuable paper on the "Birds of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, "f from
which, mainly, the list of birds inhabiting those islands, together with
other information, have been taken. By searching through the British
Museum " Catalogue of Birds " I have added a number of other records,
and the lists have been added to from other sources. In the list of birds
of the Kermadec Islands there appear the names of six species not
hitherto recorded from the group — Prion desolatus, Sterna bergii, Tringa
canutus, Oestrelata macroptera, Snla leucogaster, Phalacrocorax sulci-
rostris. For three of these I have to thank Mr. T. F. Cheeseman,
F.L.S., who kindly supplied me with a list of the skins in the Auckland
Museum collected by Mr. R. S. Bell on Sunday Island. Of the fourth —
Oestrelata macroptera — dead specimens were found by myself in 1908
washed up on the beach in Denham Bay, Sunday Island. A dead speci-
men of Sulci leucogaster was found on the beach in Denham Bay by
Mr. R. S. Bell previous to my visit, and the same observer states that
a small number of Phalacrocorax sulcirosfr.is once made their abode on
Sunday and Macaulay Islands, staying for some years. They, however,
failed to establish themselves.
Loud Howl Island.
Of fifteen species of resident land-birds breeding in the island, twelve
(including Aplonis fuscus, which occurs also on Norfolk Island) are en-
demic. The affinities of the peculiar forms are mainl}- with New Zealand
and New Caledonia. Species related to New Zealand forms are Nesolim-
nas sylvestris, Notornis alba, and CyanorTiamphus subflavescens ; those re-
lated to New Caledonian forms are Turdus vinitincta and Aplonis fuscxis.
The two species of Gerijgone are allied to forms in New Zealand and New
Caledonia, while the Lord Howe and Norfolk Island species of Zosfcrops
belong to a group occurring in New Zealand. New Caledonia and ad-
jacent islands, and Australia. The remaining three endemic species —
Ninox albaria, Rhi pidura cervina, Paehycephala contempta — are pro-
bably related to Australian forms. Numerically the Australian. New
Zealand, and New Caledonian elements in the endemic birds of Lord
Howe Island are about equal, or overwhelmingly in favour of a New
* Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 5, p. 235.
f Proc. Linn. Soo. N.S.W., vol. 34, p. 636.
216 Transaction*.
Caledonia - New Zealand migration as against an Australian immigra-
tion. The two flightless rails turn the balance in favour of New Zealand.
The distribution of the three resident land-birds not peculiar to Lord
Howe Island shows but a slight excess of Australian immigrants over
others. Stre-pera graculina extends to Australia, Halcyon vagans to New
Zealand, while Chalcophaps chrysochlora (perhaps introduced) is found
in Australia and New Caledonia.
Eleven migrants have been recorded from Lord Howe Island, some of
which occur regularly in considerable numbers. Two are cuckoos, the
rest Charadriiformes ; all have been recorded in New Zealand, and all
except' Eudynamys taitensis in Australia. It is evident that the island
is in the line taken by these species on their migration to and from New
Zealand, and thus probably on an old land-line stretching northwards
from New Zealand.
Of the thirteen occasional visitors which have been recorded in Lord
Howe Island, all are found in Australia, ten extend to New Zealand, and
eleven to New Caledonia or Malaya. The proximity of the Australian
Continent to Lord Howe Island and the direction of the prevailing winds
(westerly) in the south-west Pacific is sufficient to account for the pre-
ponderance of Australian forms in the accidental visitors to the island.
Of the eight recorded, only two extend to New Zealand.
The large proportion of endemic forms in the resident land-birds of
Lord Howe Island points to the long period the island has been an isolated
spot. The existence of two brevipinnate rails belonging to genera found
elsewhere only in New Zealand is sufficient proof of a former land con-
nection with that country. That there was also land connection to the
north, whence these birds probably came, is indicated by the large pro-
portion of endemic Lord Howe Island land-birds which are allied to New
Caledonian forms. Corroborative evidence of a land bridge between New
Caledonia and New Zealand is furnished by the presence in Lord Howe
Island of the large land-mollusc Placostylus* It would be over this
bridge that the large portion of the New Zealand fauna and flora show-
ing Malayan affinities migrated. As the two flightless rails mentioned
above are closely allied to New Zealand forms, it is probable that the
land bridge was severed in the north before the connection with New
Zealand was broken. Lord Howe Island would therefore properly belong
to the New Zealand biological region. Australia can have no claim
whatever to include Lord Howe Island within its regional limits, as a
permanent ocean-basin separates the island and continent, and what
birds of Australian origin are found in Lord Howe Island have crossed
the intervening tract of ocean, yet in spite of the proximity of the con-
tinent have not outnumbered the New Caledonian and New Zealand forms
except in those groups which I have designated occasional and accidental
visitors.
Norfolk Island.
There are twelve endemic species of land -birds (including Aplonis
fuscus). Of these, four — Hemiphaga spadicea, Nestor productus, Cyanor-
hamphus cooki, Gerygone modesta — are related to New Zealand species;
two — Rhipidura pelzelni, Pachycephala xauthoprocta — to Australian
species; four — Petroica midticolor, Diaphoropterus leucopygius, Turdus
fidiginosus, Aplonis fuscus — to New Caledonian species; and there are
two species of Zosterops. Numerically the New Caledonian element pfe-
Hedley, Proc. Linn. Soo. N.S.W.. vol. 7 (JS92), p. 335.
Oliver. — Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and. Kermadec Islands. 217
dominates, and, as with Lord Howe Island, the species of this and the
New Zealand element together far outnumber those of the Australian
section ; but again the presence of such important genera as Nestor and
llemiphaga turns the scale in favour of New Zealand. Of the seven resi-
dent land-birds not peculiar to the island, one — Halcyon vagans — extends
to New Zealand; two — Platycercus elegans (perhaps introduced), Ninox
boobook — to Australia; while the remaining four are found in both these
countries. Australian forms are thus scarcely in excess of others.
The migrants recorded include the same two species of cuckoo as occur
in Lord Howe Island, and five Charadriiformes, two of which are said to
be plentiful at certain seasons of the year. Here again an old land-line
is indicated.
All the occasional visitors to Norfolk Island occur in both Australia
and New Zealand. Of the five accidental visitors, all are Australian
forms, of which three have been recorded from New Zealand as
stragglers, and one — Herodias t im or iens is— is resident there.
There are no species of birds in Norfolk Island whose presence de-
mands that the island should at one time have been connected with a large
land-area; nor, as far as I am aware, are there any other members of
the indigenous fauna or flora of the island whose presence cannot reason-
ably be attributed to dispersal by their own means or by accident across
a narrow sea. At the same time, as the avifauna shows similar charac-
teristics to that of Lord Howe Island — namely, by its large proportion of
endemic land-birds and strong New Caledonian - New Zealand affinities
— it is evident that both islands received their first land-birds about the
same time and b}' the same route. It seems most probable that at the
time Lord Howe Island was actually part of the land bridge stretching
northwards from New Zealand, Norfolk Island was a detached islet lying
off the east coast of the land, and thus received its fauna and flora across
a narrow strait. The present contour of the ocean-floor lends support to
this view, as Norfolk Island is completely surrounded by deep water —
over 1,000 fathoms — while Lord Howe Island lies in comparatively shallow
water on the western edge of a submarine ridge stretching from New
Zealand to New Caledonia. For reasons of like origin and characteris-
tics the avifaunas of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands proclaim that both
islands must be included in the same biological region, and their relation-
ships as detailed above decide this to be the New Zealand region.
Kkrmadec Islands.
The conspicuous feature of the avifauna of the Kermadecs is its pau-
city of land-birds, and what few occur there are of a decided New Zealand
character-. There is practically no Australian element represented.
The migrants include the two cuckoos mentioned above as occurring
in Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, and six Charadriiformes. None occur
in any great numbers; thus their presence affords but little indication of
the island lying in an ancient land-line. If a large area of land ever
existed in this direction, it disappeared before the present islands came
into existence.* The occasional and accidental visitors are all common
New Zealand species, and all except Anthus novae-zealandiae occur also in
Australia.
The Kermadec Islands are of a typical oceanic character — that is, they
were formed by volcanic action in mid-ocean, and have been populated
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20, p. 161 ; vol. 43, p. 531.
218 Transactions.
entirely by trans-oceanic migration. The land avifauna and flora are
unmistakably closely allied to those of New Zealand, so that the islands
fall naturally within the New Zealand biological region. The marine
fauna has affinities with that of Polynesia. An explanation of this meet-
ing of New Zealand land species and Polynesian marine species may lie
in the fact that during the winter months, which cover the period when
plant-seeds are being dispersed, the prevailing winds in the Kermadecs
are from the south-west, while during the summer months, when the free-
swimming larval forms of marine animals are abundant, the prevailing
winds are from the north-east.
The Lord Howe - Norfolk Inland Province and the Kermadec Islands
Province.
Having shown by an analysis of their avifaunas that Lord Howe, Nor-
folk, and the Kermadec Islands fall within the limits of the New Zealand
biological region, it remains only to consider whether they form one or
more provinces or subregions of that region.
The avifaunas of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands are undoubtedlv
closely allied. Of the resident land-birds two species are common, to
which must be added the endemic species of four genera — Gerygone,
Cyanorhamyhus, Turdus, Zosterops — having representative forms in each
island. Most of the sea -birds (breeding), migrants, and occasional
visitors are. common to the two islands, but, from the manner of their
occurrence, this is not the case with the accidental visitors and the sea-
birds (visitors).
With regard to the six resident land-birds of the Kermadec Islands, all
except Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae are identical with or closely allied
to species in Norfolk Island or Lord Howe Island. But of resident land-
birds in Lord Howe or Norfolk Islands found also in the Kermadecs the
proportion is very low, so that the fact that five-sixths of the Kermadec
land-birds are related to species found in Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands
merely shows that in all probability, as Avith the plants, some of the species
in the Kermadecs which occur in both New Zealand and Norfolk Island
have arrived from Norfolk Island direct. The sea-birds (breeding) and
migrants chiefly belong to the same species as occur in Lord Howe and
Norfolk Islands. The occasional and accidental visitors, like the resident
land-birds, are very few, a fact which can be explained by the isolated
position of the islands.
The three islands therefore fall naturally into two biological provinces.
One includes Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, and is characterized by an
avifauna containing four main elements : (1) an original element which
includes the species which came by the ancient New Caledonia- New Zea-
land land bridge (majority of resident land-birds); (2) Australian and
New Zealand species arrived subsequently by trans -oceanic migration
(some of the resident land-birds and all the visitors except migrants);
(3) circumtropical species (sea-birds, breeding); (4) migrants. The Ker-
madec province contains only — (1) New Zealand (and Norfolk Island)
species arrived by trans -oceanic migration; (2) circumtropical species
(sea-birds, breeding); (3) migrants. Although the important and charac-
teristic element circumtropical species is common to the three islands,
and, in the case of plants, formed the basis of my subtropical islands
province,* I think now, on a consideration of the avifauna, that a more
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 155.
Oliver. — Birds of Lord Hour, Norfolk, and Kermadec Islands. 219
natural arrangement is to keep the Kermadec Islands separate from Lord
Howe and Norfolk Islands. The two avifaunas (and floras) will thus be
grouped naturally according to their origin and characteristics.
The following is a list of species of birds arranged in groups accord-
ing to their manner of occurrence : —
Lord Howe Island.
Residen t La/id-birds — Breeding.
Chalcophaps chrysochlora.
Nesolimnas sylvestris.
Notornis alba. , .,
Ninox albaria.
Cyanorhamphus subflavescens.
Halcyon vagans.
Gerygone thorpei.
G. insularis.
Rhipidura cervina.
Turdus yinitincta.
Pachycephala contempt a.
Zosterops tephropleura.
Z. strenua.
Aplonis i'uscus.
Strepera graculina.
Puffinus sphenurus.
P. carneipes.
Oestrelata montana.
Sterna fuliginosa.
Sea-bird* — Breeding.
Procelsterna cinerea.
Anous stolidus.
Sula cyanops.
Phaethon rubricauda.
Visitor* — Sea-b i rds .
Majaqueus aequinoctialis.
Prion desolatus.
Anous leucocapillus.
Fregata ariel.
Phaethon lepturus.
Sula leucoga.ster.
Arenaria interpres.
Charadrius dominicus.
Numenius variegatus.
N. cyanopus.
Erolfa aurita.
E. ferruginea.
Visitors — Migrants.
Limosa novae-zealandiae.
Tringa canutus.
Gallinago australis.
Chalcococcyx hicidus.
Eudynamys taitensis.
Visitors — Occasional.
Porphyrio melanonotus.
Charadrius bicinctus.
Notophoyx novae-hollandiae.
Nycticorax caledonicus.
Anas superciliosa.
Phalacrocorax sulcirostris.
P. melanoleucas.
Circus gouldi.
Eurystomus pacificus.
Cuculus inornatus.
Cacomantis rufulus.
Coracina robusta.
Grallina picata.
Phaps elegans.
Himantopus leucocephalus.
Herodias timoriensis.
Ardetta pusilla.
Visitors— ^Accidental.
Astur novae-hollandiae.
Haliaetus leucogaster.
Haliastur sphenurus.
Chelidon neoxena.
220
Transactions .
Norfolk Island.
Reside/tt Land-birds — Breeding.
Hemiphaga spadicea.
Hypotaenidia philippensis.
Porzana plumbea.
Porphyrio melanonotus.
Ninox boobook.
Nestor productus.
Platycercus elegans.
Cvanorhamphus cooki.
Halcvon vagans.
Petroica multicolor.
Gerygone modest a.
Rhipidura pelzelni.
Diaphoropterus leucopygius.
Turdus fuliginosus.
Pachycephalia xanthoprocta .
Zosterops caerulescens.
Z. albigularis.
Z. tenuirostris.
Aplonis fuscus.
Puffinus sphennrus.
P. assimilis.
P. griseus.
Oestrelata philippi.
Sterna fuliginosa.
Procelsterna cinerea.
Sea-birds — Breeding.
Anous stolidus.
A. leucocephalus.
Gygis alba.
Sula cyanops.
Phaethon rubricauda.
Oestrelata macroptera.
Puffinus cerneipes.
Megalestris antarctica.
Visitors — Sea-birds .
Sterna albistriata.
Ossifraga gigantea.
Arenaria interpres.
Charadrius dominicus.
Numenius variegatus.
Glottis nebularius.
Visitors — Migrants.
Limosa novae-zealandiae.
Chalcococcyx lucidus.
Eudvnamvs taitensis.
Visitors — Occasional .
Gharadrius bicinctus.
Notophoyx novae-hollandiae.
Anas superciliosa.
Phalacrocorax sulcirostris
Eurystomus pacificus.
Circus gouldi.
Visitors — Accidental.
Himantopus leucocephalus.
Platalea regia.
Herodias timoriensis.
Larus novae-hollandiae.
Astur approximans.
Kekmadec Islands.
Resident Land-birds — Breeding
Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae.
Halcyon vagans.
Cyanorhamphus cyanurus.
Anas superciliosa.
Porzana plumbea.
1 Hemiphaga novae-zealandiae.
Oliver. — Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and Kermadec Island*.
221
Sterna fuliginosa.
Gygis alba.
Anous leucocapillus.
Procelsterna cinerea.
Phaethon pubricauda.
Sula cyanops.
Daption capensis.
Diomedea exulans.
D. melanophrys.
Phoebetria fuliginosa.
Pelagodroma marina.
Sula leucogaster.
Sea-birds — Breeding.
Pufhiius sphenurus.
P. assimilis.
Oestrelata cervicalis.
0. neglecta.
0. nigripennis.
Visitors — Sea-birds .
Purlin us tenuirostris.
Fregata aquila.
Prion desolatus.
Oestrelata macroptera.
Sterna bergii.
Visitors — Mi y rants.
Charadrius dominicus. Erolia aurita.
€. veredus. Limosa novae-zealandiae.
Tringa eanutus. Chalcococcyx lucidus.
Numenius variegatus. Eudynamys taitensis.
Visitors — Occasioned.
Circus gouldi. Anthus novae-zealandiae.
Zosterops caerulescens. Phalacrocorax sulcii-ostris.
Visitors
Hypotaenidia philippensis.
Porphyrio melanonotus.
Accidental.
Demiegretta sacra.
Art. XXIV. —A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara Gorge.
By R. Speight. M.Sc, F.G.S.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th December, 1911.]
Although the various localities of North Canterbury where Cretaceous and
Tertiary rocks occur, such as the Middle Waipara, Weka Pass, Motunau,
Oraihi, and the Okuku, have received most careful attention, and have
been fully dealt with on different occasions by the officers of the Geological
Survey, by Haast, Hutton, and Park, and latterly by Marshall, Cotton,
and the present writer, the district at the mouth of the Waipara River
has hardly been noticed. Except the very brief mention of its structure
by Hector (Geological Reports, 18GS-69, p. x) and by Haast (" Geology
of Canterbury and Westland," pp. 316-17), the published matter dealing
with it consists merely of the list of fossils collected by Buchanan and
Haast, referred to by Hutton in his report on the " Geology of the North-
east Portion of the South Island " (Geological Survey Report, 1873-74,
p. 52) and in his various publications dealing with our Tertiary series
and its fossil-content, and the list given by Haast in his " Geology of
222 Transactions.
Canterbury and Westland," pp. 319-22. This is, as far as I have been
able to glean, the total reference in published reports to this interesting
locality. The present account is necessarily imperfect, but it is based on
work done on numerous visits, on two of which I was fortunate in having
the advice and assistance of Dr. Marshall, to whom, as well as to Mr.
Suter for valuable help in identifying the fossils, my sincere thanks are
clue.
General Description of the Locality.
(See map.)
The district referred to in this account lies, roughly, to the south-
east of the point where the railway running north from Christchurch
crosses the Waipara River, and for the purposes of more accurate defi-
nition the lower gorge of the river may be taken as that part of its
course which lies between its junction with the Omilii Creek and the sea.
The creek joins the river about two miles belowT the railway-crossing, and
is historically important, since it flows from the swamp where Haast
obtained his Glenmark collection of moa-remains. The actual length of
the gorge is about four miles. Its sides are moderately steep, easily
climbed in most places, but unscalable in parts, and rising to an average
height of about 350 ft. above the river-bed. They are higher on the
eastern side, whence they extend as a stretch of irregular downs towards
the slopes of Mount Cass, which forms the south-western buttress of the
Limestone Range. On the western side of the river the banks are not so
high, and they form part of the low downs stretching to the south-west
towards Amberley. The breadth of the gorge varies, but it usually pre-
sents a wide floor covered with shingle, on which the river wanders. At
times, however, its breadth is reduced to about 100 yards, or even less,
and then the river-channel is more definitely fixed. In some places the
stream forms well-defined loops or meanders — a notable one occurs about
half-way through the gorge — and it is now destroying the spurs which
project laterally from the high banks into these loops. Although the
stream has considerable fall, the large amount of detrital matter which
it transports from higher levels, and specially from the banks of loose
shingle bordering its course through the Waipara Plains, has so dimin-
ished its power of erosion that it has apparently reached a temporary
base-level, and this in spite of the fact that within fairly recent times —
certainly since the Pleistocene — the coast has experienced a distinct up-
ward movement.
A recent upward movement of the coast-line to the north of the
Waipara has been recorded by McKay at Amuri Bluff (Report of the
Geological Survey, 1874-76, p. 177), where beaches with Recent shells
are found at a height of 500 ft. Evidence of the same movement at the
mouth of the Conway and at Motunau is given by Hutton (Report of the
Geological Survey, 1873—74, p. 54), where the land has certainly risen
150 ft., and, judging from the features of the remarkable plain of marine
denudation noted by Hutton and examined more recently by the present
author, the elevation has in all probability been much greater. Rem-
nants of this plain over a mile in breadth are to be found on both sides
of the mouth of the Waipara River. A little way back from the present
beach is an old sea-cliff about 50 ft. high extending along the coast for
several miles, and from the summit of this the land slopes gently back
for about a mile, the upturned edges of the beds forming the solid sub-
stratum of the country being planed off neatly by the former action of
the sea and then covered with a thin veneer of loose shingle, some of it
Speight. — Lower Waipara Gorge.
223
Pareora Series.
Grey Marls.
Weka Pass Limestones, &c.
Geological Sketch Map
OF THE
LOWER WAIPARA DISTRICT.
Scale in Miles,
Fig. 1.
224 Transactions.
of marine origin, and of material which closely resembles the loess of the
south-eastern portion of the South Island. This plain slopes back to the
base of the low downs near Amberlev, where it reaches a height of about
150 ft. However, on looking up the coast to the north from the mouth
of the Waipara, decided remnants of a shore platform can be seen at an
estimated height of 250 ft. above the sea, and fronting the plain there
are several small remnants at lower levels marking stationary periods
during the prolonged elevation. It is therefore certain that a long stretch
of coast-line has experienced the effect of this movement. That the rise
is of recent date is very clear from the species of shells found at Motunau,
and also from the forms of the stream-valleys that have been esta-
blished on the elevated marine shelf. With few exceptions, the streams
which run across it have very short courses, and are little more than
extended gullie& or washouts. Through the somewhat loose Motunau
marls, which form the solid base of the land, they have eroded deep
channels, at times over 100 ft. in depth, extremely narrow, and with
sides so precipitous that they are absolutely impassable for long distances.
The whole plain is dissected by them, and they render communication a
matter of difficulty where roads and tracks do not exist. The district
furnishes a most remarkable example of the effect of a recent upward
land-movement on the gradient and cross-section of the stream-channels.
The phenomenon is intensified by the uniform seaward dip at moderate
angles of the beds under the plain, and the parallelism of the strike to
the coast-line. A similar phenomenon is to be observed near the mouth
of the Waipara, but the features are not quite so perfect.
This plain of marine denudation once extended much further sea-
ward, and the small island at Motunau is a remnant of it, its flat top
show'ing a marked alignment of its surface with that of the coast-line
opposite. Howt far this plain extended seawards it is impossible to say at
present, but at the mouth of the Waipara the river-terraces appear high
above the present level of the water, and are terminated suddenly when
they reach the edge of the old marine cliff which marks the edge of the
coastal plain. At a former period the river must have extended much
further seaward, and flowed on the top of the plain, the terraces with
their shorn ends giving positive proof of its higher level and seaward
extension at that level. As river erosion was proceeding the sea was
eating back the margin of the plain, thus giving the streams a steeper
gradient and increasing their erosive power, and the truncated ends of
the terraces mark the limit to which the plain was destroyed. When one
takes into account their perfect condition he must conclude that either
terraces are stable land-forms or that marine erosion on this stretch of
coast has been vary rapid and comparatively recent.
There is also evidence of a more recent land-movement still. Along
the base of the old marine cliff, referred to previously as bordering the
coastal plain, there is a strip of flat land consisting of shingle-beds, sand-
dunes, and swamp, half a mile wide and but slightly raised above the
sea. It has, without doubt, been formed of detrital matter brought down
by the rivers in the vicinity, such as the Ashley and Waipara, as well as
by the small streams which flow directly into the sea, their load of
waste being distributed by waves, tides, and currents along the base of
the old cliff. These accumulations are several miles in length, and their
size suggests that there has been either a remarkable increase in the
supply of detritus or that there has been a small recent upward move-
ment of the coast. There is no apparent reason why the streams should
have been suddenly furnished with an increased load of detritus, although
Speight. — Loire?- Waipara Gorge. 225
it must be noted that they are fully charged at the present time, and it
is quite conceivable that they could build up a shallow sea-bottom till it
was above sea-level without any change in the level of the land. I can-
not, however, think that this explanation is altogether satisfactory, and
conclude that a small and probably continuous uplift lias taken place
after a comparatively long period of stability, during which the old
coastal plain was eaten back to the line of the former sea-cliff.
Judging from the profiles of the streams joining the Waipara from
the flanks of the Deans Range and elsewhere, this movement has extended
its effects some distance inland. The loops of the river in the gorge
itself, placed as they are in a somewhat narrow trench, may owe their
origin primarily to the fact that at a former period the river reached
base-level, and that the gorge was cut down to its present depth during
a subsequent period of elevation when the river had increased power to
corrade, and that now it has again almost adjusted its grade to the load
it carries, and all its erosive energy is devoted to destroying the loops
that it previously formed. It is very difficult, however, to correlate
these effects with certainty.
Origin of the Waipara Gorge.
The circumstances resulting in the formation of the Waipara Gorge
furnish one of those interesting problems with respect to drainage direc-
tions for which the North Canterbury district is noted. When the river
leaves the hills between Mount Brown and the Deans, and issues from the
middle gorge, whose existence has been largely determined by the great
Mid-Waipara fault, it pursues a course of about seven miles across the
Waipara Plains, and, instead of taking the easy path to the sea past
Amberley, it cuts a somewhat deep channel through the downs which
stretch south-west from the termination of the Limestone Range. Here
it runs practically along the strike of the beds which form this somewhat
elevated ground. At times it breaks across the strike for a short dis-
tance; still, the coincidence is very marked, even when the strike swings
round through a right angle. When the river leaves the downs and
debouches on to the coastal plain it pursues a direct course to the sea,
still following the strike approximately. There seems to be no reason
from the present configuration of the ground why this difficult path
should have been selected when an easy one was ready to hand, so that it
is apparently one of the instances of the anomalous behaviour of rivers
which the district furnishes.
The Waiau and Hurunui, a few miles further north, and even the
Waipara itself in its upper portion, have cut gorges through mountains
composed of hard greywackes and slaty shales of Mesozoic age when they
might easily have avoided the obstructions. The only satisfactory ex-
planation is based on the fact that they are instances of " superimposed '
drainage. In late Cretaceous and early Tertiary times an archipelago
of small islands formed of rocks of Lower Mesozoic age occupied the area
now known as North Canterbury and the Amuri districts. In the straits
and bays among these islands, greensands, solid limestones, marls, and
loose incoherent calcareous sands and gravels were laid down, so that
the original surface was completely masked. When the land was raised
above the sea in late Tertiary times the course of the streams established
upon it was largely determined by the form of the land as it emerged.
While cutting down their channels the streams removed a large part of
the veneer of loose and readily eroded material, encountered the hard
underlying rocks, cut into them, and maintained their original direc-
8- Tran-.
226 Transactions.
tions. As time went or. more and more of the loose sediments was re-
moved, and the original form of the land-surface completely altered.
The existing Tertiary deposits are in all probability but a small part
of those originally laid down, for isolated fragments of these rocks are
found in various places high above the present valley-floors, and in such
positions that they may well have formed part of an extensive sheet. I
think that this is the best explanation of the evolution of the land in the
district, as well as of the anomalous courses of the rivers. A similar
explanation was also indicated by Captain Hutton in a short paragraph
contained in his paper on " The Formation of the Canterbury Plains '
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, 1905, p. -167).
It is quite possible, however, that the presence of the Lower Waipara
Gorge in the peculiar situation in which it now occurs may be due to a
small coastal stream cutting back its head through the escarpments of
harder rocks, capturing the headwaters of other small streams, and finally
tapping the Waipara itself; but the explanation based on the fact that
it is a case of " superimposed " drainage fits the case best.
Stratigraphy.
The question of the stratigraphy can naturally be elucidated by a
comparison with other known localities. Fortunately, the Mid-Waipara
and the Weka Pass (in close proximity) have become classic in the history
of New Zealand geology, having been reported on by nearly all those
who have done field-work in this country. In these typical localities the
following is a representative sequence, starting from the top, of the beds
that have been recorded : —
8. Motunau or Greta Beds. — Sands and conglomerates, mostly calcareous,
with shells of Mollusca in varying states of preservation, but
usually fragmentary. The beds are generally loose and incoherent,
but at time concretionary.
7. Mount Brown Beds. — Rough calcareous sandstones with harder con-
cretionary bands, markedly fossiliferous in places.
6. Grey Marl. — Grey and greenish sandstones and blue sandy and cal-*
careous clays.
5. Weka Pass Stone. — Glauconitic and slightly arenaceous limestone.
4. Amuri Limestone. — Foraminiferal and argillaceous limestone.
3. Greensands. — Markedly glauconitic in the upper portions, and with
concretions full of saurian remains in the lower part. These beds
arc often argillaceous, ferruginous, and calcareous, and at times
exhibit marked efflorescence of sulphur.
2. Oyster - beds, containing shells of Ostrea, Gonchothyra parasitica,
fragments of Belemnites, Inoceramus, and other shells.
1. Sands and clays with brown coal and impure limonite.
The lower portion of this series is more completely developed further
to the north-east, in the Omihi Creek and at Amuri Bluff. According
to Hector, Haast, Hutton, Park, and perhaps McKay, the sequence is
broken by unconformities, placed in different positions by the different
authors, but it is very probable that it is quite conformable throughout.
However, it is only the upper part of the sequence with which this paper
is specially concerned — that is, with the Motunau and Mount Brown beds,
and the Grey Marls and Weka Pass beds, which underlie them. The
whole of the banks and terraces bordering the Waipara River as it passes
through the lower gorge consist of the sands and conglomerates forming
Speight. — Lower Waipara Gorge. 227
the highest members of the sequence recorded above ; the other beds are,
however, in close proximity to the river on its eastern side. The former
will be referred to hereafter as the Pareora series, seeing that their fossil
fauna shows a close relationship to that of the typical Pareora locality.
Structure and Arrangement op the Beds in the Gorge.
(See map and section).
At the junction of the Omihi Creek with the Waipara River the beds
consist of sands, sandy clays with concretionary bands, and conglomerates
with shells. The strike is N. 5° W., with a westerly dip of about 22 £°.
A good exposure is to be seen where a recent flood has removed the
surface covering of shingle, and laid bare the solid bank just opposite
the mouth of the Omihi Creek. In the Omihi itself, just above the
junction, the beds strike north-east and dip to the north-west at 45°.
It is evident that the strike here swings round somewhat, a feature which
will be readily understood when the general structural features of the
locality are considered later, this small movement being only a part of
one of wide extent.
On following the river down from the junction, the high banks on
the east are found to be obscured by soil and slip-material, but after
going about 300 yards the dip observed at the junction changes to
the south-east, with the same strike as before. The structure is thus
anticlinal, and the same anticline can be distinctly traced for over a
S
j»
Pareora Series. Grey Marls. Pareora Series. Grey Marls.
Fig. 2. — Section from Omihi Creek through Bill's Hill to Sea (Five Miles).
mile to the north-east along the bank of Limestone Creek, a tributary
of the Omihi coming from the northern slopes of Mount Cass, the stream
having eroded a deep channel lor some distance along the axis of the
anticline. On going still further in that direction the underlying lime-
stones are exposed, with what has all the appearance of an anticlinal
arrangement.
Following the banks of the Waipara further down, the south-easterly
dip is maintained till the second gully below the Omihi is reached.
At the head of this a well-marked syncline is exposed, the western side
being chiefly composed of thick beds of fine gravel, but overlying them
is a bed of coarse gravel with numerous molluscan remains. These
include Fvlguraria arabica, Ostrea nelsoniana, 0. ingens, 0. angasi,
Siphonalia dilatata, Paphia curta, Crepidida gregaria, Mactra elongata,
Ancilla hebera, Ancilla australis, and Chione intermedia. The syncline
here exposed can be traced to the north-east, parallel to the anticline
running up Limestone Creek.
On going still further down-stream the beds dip to the west, and an
angle of about 60° is maintained for a distance down the river of about
two miles, the strike being between N. 25° E. and N. 35° E. The
beds are well exposed in the bluff just below the point where the road
from Glasnevin Railway-station meets the river. They consist of sands.
8*
228 Transactions.
calcareous sands with concretionary bands, and gravel -beds more or
less cemented, and are highly fossiliierous. The chief genera to be col-
lected are Mactra, Ghione, Ostrea, Pectin, Crepidula, and also Bryozoa .
Some beds are almost wholly formed of the remains of Crepidula, but
they are usually in a poor state of preservation. A characteristic
feature of the beds at this point are the massive bands of coar.e cemented
gravels, dipping to the west at an angle of 60°. For a long distance
one of these beds forms one bank of the river, and it can !>e traced some
distance to the north-east on the north side of Mount Cass. Here it
dips at a steeper angle, and on going further it is apparently lost
under the covering of soil. In all possibility it will reappear in the
creeks which flow from the northern side of the Limestone Range.
The same direction of dip and strike is approximately maintained
on following down the river to the immediate neighbourhood of a
pronounced meander of the stream. The strike here begins to swing
round in a positive direction, so that, while just above the loop it is
N. 5° E:, at the loop itself it is N. 5° W., with a westerly dip, several
hard bands of cemented gravel occurring at this point rendering an
.accurate determination easy. Just past the loop, on the eastern side
■of the river, and also on the flank of the high escarpment a little further
down-stream, the beds consist of sand and concretionary bands full
of shell-remains in excellent state of preservation. This is one of the
'best localities that I know of for the collection of Tertiary fossils, and
when thoroughly exhausted will be found to yield a very rich harvest.
A list of species collected by Dr. Marshall and myself is given later in
this article, and it will be found to show a marked agreement with those
collected at the typical Pareora locality, in South Canterbury.
The structure of the beds becomes at this point somewhat compli-
cated, and its unravelment is an interesting problem. On following
down the western side of the river below the loop the strike is observed
to swing round in the same direction as higher up t!>e river. Just at
the mouth of the gorge proper the strike is N. 15° W., with a westerly
dip, and just below the Teviotdale Bridge, half a mile further on, it
becomes N. 55° W.
In passing through the gorge the strike has thus swung round through
a right angle, and its effect is to be seen in the shape of the ridges of
the downs towards Amberley, which are found to circle round with it,
the outward slope of the downs being generally towards the dip of the
beds. At a point about COO yards above the bridge, at the mouth of
a small gully, there has been a marked dislocation of the beds. They
have been apparently folded down in an acute isocline, so that the two
limbs are approximately parallel; but the beds immediately on either
side of it do not appear to be affected, and they do not change their
proper level or alter their dip or strike. The disturbance appears to
he quite local, and it is not strongly in evidence on the opposite bank
of the river. This is the only marked dislocation to be observed through-
out the whole length of the gorge, and I have not been able to find any
sign of the fault mentioned by Hector (loc. cit.).
If we now consider the arrangement of the beds on the eastern side
of the river, the structure on the western side can be readily understood.
Below the loop mentioned previously, on the slope of the high escarp-
ment which fronts the river to the west and north-west of the Teviot-
dale Station, the beds dip to the south-east, but an open anticline is
clearly visible at the point which projects into the river half a mile
below. The axis of this anticline is not horizontal, but pitches to
Speight. — Lower Waipara Gorge 229
the south-west, and thus the gradual swing-round of the .strike of the
beds to the west of the river is easily explained. The amount of
pitch must be considerable, for the lowest beds actually exposed in
the gorge, at a height of about 100 ft. above sea-level, are the Grey
Marls, whereas the limestones which underlie the marls are exposed on
Mount Cass, about three miles to the north-east, at an elevation of
1,700 ft. It is possible, also, that the anticline not only pitches, but
dies out as well. It is certain, however, that it is distinctly unsym-
metrical, and the western limb dips down at a steeper angle than the
eastern limb.
The direction of the strike observed in the river near the axis of
the anticline changes on following the escarpment towards Mount Cass.
It is at first parallel with the river, but, on being followed further,
strikes north-east with a dip to the south-east, and the beds forming it
lie in just the same relation to the limestones of Mount Cass and the
Limestone Range as the Mount Brown beds in the Weka Pass do to
the limestones occurring there. The similarity of the arrangement is
most marked. If the creeks between the escarpment and Mount Cass be
examined, the " Grey Marl " of the Survey is found in its proper position
and with characteristic development; but only the upper sandy beds
of these marls are visible in the gorge itself in the immediate vicinity
of the loop of the river and in the reach below it. The axis of the
anticline which runs out in the Waipara continues to the north-east,
the limestone of the Mount Cass ridge forming the limb dipping to the
south-east, while the north-east limb is represented by isolated blocks
to the north of the Limestone Range. At the core of the anticline,
immediately to the north of Mount Cass, lies a prominent hill, formed
of the underlying greywackes of Mesozoic age. This arrangement is
exactly what might have been expected from a consideration of the
structure and relationship of the beds in the Weka Pass and the Mid-%
Waipara
As the anticline is traced to the north-east from the river it appears
to change to one of increasing asymmetry, so that some of the hard con-
cietionary bands on reaching to the inland side of Mount Cass become
nearly vertical. It is possible that on being followed further north-east
still it grades into a fault with a downthrow to the north-west, since
the limestones near the southern edge of the Omihi Valley, in the
neighbourhood of Limestone Creek, show a marked discordance in
level between those forming the crest of the ridge of Mount Cass, although
they dip in the same direction. More accurate examination of this
part of the country is necessary before a satisfactory conclusion can be
arrived at.
The apparent bend in the axis of the anticline near the Waipara River
is perhaps due to this asymmetrical character, associated with the pitch
of the axis; it may, however, be due to a disturbance caused by folding
of the beds to the east of the mouth of the river in the neighbourhood of
the Teviotdale Station.
On all the stretch of country forming the triangular area between
the Waipara River and the Teviotdale Creek the strike of the beds is
uniformly N. 55° W., with a southerly dip. They consist of sands, sandy
marls, loose gravels, and hard bands of conglomerate, composed of large
pebbles of greywacke and full of fossil-fragments. The beds are so hard,
however, that they rarely yield good specimens. One of the hard bands
forms the escarpment to the south-west of the Teviotdale Station ; another
forms a low indistinct parallel ridge to the north of this ; but the most
230 Transactions.
prominent is a massive and solid bed on the north of the station, which
rims out to the coast at a prominent rocky point to the east of the river-
mouth. The immediate coast-line at this point consists of large blocks
derived from this bed, and its continuation seaward is marked by a line
of submerged reef. Fossil remains are very common in this bed, specially
remains of Mollusca, and notably a flat sea-urchin (Arachnoides placenta),
but the rock is so firmly cemented that it is almost impossible to obtain
good specimens.
This hard bed is primarily responsible for the shape of the ridge
known as Bill's Hill, which lies to the north-east of the Teviotdale Sta-
tion. Its peculiar position presents a somewhat difficult problem till it
is recognized that the hill is an anticline, and that it is flanked on the
north by a small syncline now coinciding approximately with the upper
valley of the Teviotdale Creek. The northern side of this creek is formed
of beds dipping to the south-east and rising to the north-west till they form
the prominent escarpment facing Mount Cass on its southern side. The
Bill's Hill anticline owes its preservation from denuding agents to the
protection of its upper surface by the layers of hard conglomerate which
covers it almost continuously, although individual layers are somewhat
discontinuous in their extension, one band being frequently replaced by
a slightly lower and parallel one on frequent occasions. Nevertheless,
the total effect is to cover the hill and protect it from active denudation.
The axes of both the anticline and its accompanying syncline run
approximately N.E.-S.W., but they peter out between the Teviotdale
Station and the river. It is possible, however, that they have exerted
some disturbing effect on the main structural anticline, which runs from
Mount Cass towards the river; and perhaps the curvature of its axis
is due to the coalescence of the two lines of folding as they are followed
to the south-west. A very complete examination of the locality is, how-
ever, necessary before the precise effect of each fold on its neighbour can
be determined.
It will be observed that all the axes of folding enumerated above are
approximately parallel, and they are also parallel to the folds which
the Cretaceous and Tertiary series at Amuri Bluff and Kaikoura exhibit
so markedly. These folding movements have therefore extended well into
North Canterbury. Their presence in that locality, and also in the Tre-
lissick basin, described by McKay and confirmed by examination by the
present writer, suggest strongly that earth-movements connected with the
folding of the great alpine chain had probably not ceased even late in
the Tertiary era, although they were certainly more acute in the Kaikoura
district than further south, and were, besides, of a different order of
intensity and character from those primarily responsible for the forma-
tion of the great mountain-range.
The thickness of the beds exposed in the gorge certainly exceeds
1,800 ft., and all through them, as well as in the underlying Grey Marls
and limestones, there is no sign of any discordance or dislocation other
than folding, with the exception of the local disturbance referred to on
page 228. The special importance of the absence of any evidence for a
physical break will be understood when the fossil content of the beds has
been considered.
In many parts of the area the solid strata are covered with a veneer,
of greater or less thickness, of what are evidently river-gravels, in addi-
tion to the covering of recent marine shingle on the coastal plain. These
may have been derived from rivers which flowed over the country at
higher levels than now, of which there is abundant evidence in the downs
Speight. — Loner Waipara Gorgt .
231
to the south-east of Mount Grey, but in many cases the pebbles have been
weathered out of the conglomerates which form a fairly large percentage
of the beds of Pareora age in the vicinity of the gorg".
List of Fossils collected.
The following is a list of
myself on various visits, the
made by Mr. Suter : —
A no mi a sp.
Cardium patulum Hutt.
spatiosum Hutt.
greyi Zitt.
CJiione meridionalis Sow.
stuchburyi Gray.
sp. Near G. ckiloensis, but
distinct, and probably new.
sp. nov.
sp.
the fossils collected by Dr. Marshall and
determinations in nearlv all cases
being
nov.
Crassatellites ampins Zitt.
Cucullaea alba* Sow.
Diplodonta zelandica Gray.
Dosinia magna Hutt.
sub rosea Gray.
greyi Zitt.
lambata Gld.
Glycimeris globosa Hutt.
laticostatus Hutt.
Lima paleata Hutt.
bullata Tate.
Lutraria solida Hutt.
Macrocallista multistriata Sow.
Mactra elongata Quoy & Gaim.
chrydaea Sut.
Mesodesma grande Hutt.
■ ■ sp.
Mytilus caniculus Mart.
Ostrea nelsoniana Zitt.
ingens Zitt.
angasi Sow.
edulis Linn.
Panopaea orbita Hutt.
zelandica Quoy <v Gaim.
Paphia curta Hutt.
Pecten crawfurdi Hutt.
hillii Hutt.
williamsoni Zitt.
( Pseudamussium ) huttoni Park.
Spicula aequilateralis Desh.
Tellina sp. Near disculus Desh.
Yenericardia austrdlis Lam.
sp. Probably new.
Ancilla australis Sow.
Ancilla depressa Sow.
— hebera Hutt.
sp. Near australis.
sp. nov.
Bathytoma sulcata Hutt.
Bela robusta Hutt.
Galyptraea scutum Less.
f'erithidea sp.
G repidula gregaria Sow.
Gylichnella enysi Hutt.
Epitonium rur/ulosum lyratum
Zitt.
Galeodea senex Hutt.
sulcata Hutt.
sp. Small variety; pro-
bably distinct.
Fulguraria arabica Mart.
L'olinices callosa Hutt.
huttoni von Ihering.
ovatus Hutt.
New var. imperforatus
Suter non ed.
hamiltonensis Tate.
Olivella zealandica Hutt.
Trochus tiaratus Quoy & Gaim.
Struthiolaria cincta Hutt.
cingulata Hutt.
tuberculata Hutt.
caniculata Zitt.
Terebra biplex Hutt.
sp. Near biplex Hutt.
sp. nov.
Trochus tiaratus Quoy & Gaim.
Turbo sp.
Turritella sp.
Volutospina (Athleta) huttoni
Sut. ( = V. kirki Hutt and
Kirki kirki).
Dentalium solidum Hutt.
Balanus sp.
Arachnoides placenta sp. (?).
Meandropora.
Myliobatis sp. (?). Teeth.
Ribs of cetaceans.
* This species was collected in February at the Lower Waipara by Dr. Allan Thomson
and Mr. C. A. Cotton, and a specimen given to the author.
232 Transactions.
In addition to the above, the following species are recorded by Haast
as occurring at the Lower Waipara Gorge ("Geology of Canterbury and
Westland," p. 321):—
Cytheria enysi Hutt.
Venericardia intermedia Hutt
Mod tola albicosta Lam.
Modiola sp.
Lima crassa Hutt.
A careful comparison of this list with the list of present species of
Mollvsca found fossil given by Suter (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910,
p. 8) shows that more than 30 per cent, of the species given above are
now living in New Zealand seas. Although the list of Waipara fossils will
no doubt be greatly amplified by more careful search, the relative propor-
tion of species to those existing now is not likely to be much altered.
Judging from this percentage, the beds should be classified as Upper
Miocene or Lower Pliocene.
A further comparison with the list of fossils found at the typical
Pareora locality, in South Canterbury, shows that of sixty-four named
species given in the Waipara list thirty-two are to be found in the lists
of species collected at Pareora given in Haast's " Geology of Canterbury
and Westland," in Park's paper " On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago
and Canterbury" (Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 37, 1905, p. 530), and among
the fossils exhibited in the Canterbury Museum. This is at first sight a
somewhat small proportion, but the forms common to both include a very
large number of characteristic species, and it is possible that further
collection may bring about further accordance. In any case, the number
of characteristic genera common to both localities renders it a matter of
certainty that the beds in the Lower Waipara are contemporaneous with
those in the typical locality at Pareora.
A further comparison with the list of the fossils collected by Park on
the Mount Donald escarpment (loc. cit., p. 540), and with the lists of
Mount Brown fossils given by Haast (" Geology of Canterbury and West-
land," pp. 306-11), and also bv Hutton in his paper on the " Railway-
cuttings in the Weka Pass" (Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 20, 1888, pp. 261-62),
shows a certain amount of agreement of the Lower Waipara fossils with
those collected in the typical Mount Brown localities. There are, how-
ever, some differences, notably the absence of Brachiopods from the Lower
Waipara, in marked contrast to their extraordinary numbers at Mount
Brown. This ma}' be due either to the fact that the proper horizons for
these fossils have not been discovered in the Waipara, or that the condi-
tions for their existence or for their entombment were not favourable in
that locality when the beds were laid down. The accordance of the fossil
content is, however, sufficiently close to assign both sets of beds to the
same age, especially when the associated fossil species from other localities
of the same age are taken into consideration. The stratigraphical rela-
tions also, strongly support this conclusion.
Since by far the greater number of the fossils enumerated in the list
can be collected on one horizon in the gorge — i.e., just above the Grey
Marls — it is reasonable to consider that the lowest beds intersected by the
river are of the same age as the Mount Brown beds, while the upper mem-
bers are probably of the same age as the Motunau or Greta beds, and the
conformity of the sequence in the gorge supports the opinion of Hutton
that the Mount Brown beds are the base of the Pareora system, and the
absence of any unconformity in the gorge also supports his contention
Speight. — Lower Waipara Gorgt. 233
that there is no stratigraphical break between the base of the Mount Brown
beds and the top of the Greta beds.*
The circumstances are also favourable to the position maintained b}-
Marshall, Speight, and Cotton in the paper on the Tertiary series pub-
lished in last year's " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " — that
there is no stratigraphical break in North Canterbury between beds at
the base of the Waipara system characterized by the presence of saurian
remains, Belemnites, Conchothyra parasitica, and various species of Tri-
gonia, and beds which have a fauna which must be assigned to the Miocene
or even the Lower Pliocene period. This statement does not, however,
negative the existence of a palaeontological break.
Conclusion.
For the purpose of aiding people who wish to examine this interesting
locality, I make the following suggestions as to the means of visiting it.
The lower portion of the gorge is best worked from Amberley, which is
distant about three miles, with a good road suitable for driving or bicycle.
The upper part can be reached most conveniently from Waipara, whence
a walk or ride of about two miles will bring one on to the upper entrance
to the gorge. If time is limited, and only one day is available for the
visit, the Glasnevin Railway-station affords the shortest and readiest access
to the middle part of the gorge. There is a good road leading from this
station to within a short distance of the place where abundant fossils are
to be found. At either Amberley or Waipara there are hotels at which
accommodation can be obtained.
Explanation of Plates.
In considering the map and section accompanying this paper it must
be noted that recent alluvial and marine deposits have not been marked.
It was found impossible to do this accurately without examining almost
every acre of the country; only the underlying solid beds are, therefore,
represented.
* In Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, 1905, p. 538, Park says, " The Motunau beds lie on
a denuded surface of the Mount Brown beds, and the section is so clear that no doubt
can be entertained as to the unconformable relations of the two formations " ; but in a
recent paper published in the "Geological Magazine" (5th December, vol. 8, p. 548) he
admits the physical conformity of the Mount Brown and Motunau beds. His exact
words are, " The unconformity which I thought I recognized at Waipara between the
Mount Brown and Motunau beds may not exist, or, if it does, it may be purely local.
In my classification of the Jamger formations adopted in my ' Geology of New Zealand '
I have recognized only one physical break fin the Tertiary succession] — namely, one
between the Oamaru and Waipara series. Nothing I have seen since the publication of
that work has led me to alter the opinion I then expressed." The author is therefore
glad to know that his position as to the conformity of the Motunau and Mount Brown
beds is quite in agreement with the most recently expressed opinion of Professor Park
on a somewhat important point in our Tertiary stratigraphy.
234 Transactions.
Art. XXV. — Notes on Jest. Life-history, and Habits of Migas
distinctus, a New Zealand Trapdoor Spider.
By J. B. Gatenby.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 7th June. 7577.]
Plate XV.
I have to thank Mr. P. Goyen for identifying this species, and also
Professor Kirk for his many kindnesses to me.
Migas disti /ictus is a small black spider belonging to a genus which
includes two other species — M. paradoxus and M. sandageri.
The Nest : its Parts. (Fig. 14 — a clay bank.)
Lid. or Trapdoor. (Fig. 9, a, b, c.)
Measurements. — Taken lengthwise (for the lids of the adult speci-
mens are seldom exactly circular) (fig. 7, e), the lid measures § in. to
| in. ; taken across, it measures T% in. to fin. The lids always vary
in thickness. If a 7>est is located in a mossy bank, the lid is thick, so
that the surrounding growths will spread to the surface of the door.
If the lid is situated in a hard, bare, clay bank, the spider, not needing
to provide rooting-surface, covers the door with a thin cement layer.
A thick door is often \ in. through; a thin door often less than -^hi.
Construction of Lid. — The adult's lid is a compound structure, con-
sisting of several layers. The number of layers is never less than two,
and seldom more than twelve. Where the bank is mossy, the layers are
generally two — viz., a thin silk layer and a thick earth layer. If the
locality is dry and poor in growths, the lid has one very thin cement-
clay layer on top, and from four to twelve separate silken layers (fig. 7,
a, b* c, d, e — stages in growth).
Layers of Lid. — Many adult lids show a rough, layered upper surface
(fig. 7, e) caused by the enlargements of the door. Each silken layer is
thicker at the edges than in the centre, and appears in texture like a
piece of linen. The material for the top, or the earthy layer, is scraped
from near the nest, and fine stones and pieces of vegetation are fre-
quently mixed together with the earth; hence the door becomes very
inconspicuous. Where the bank is lumpy, doors are sometimes con-
structed from small, entire, irregular pieces of earth, cut fiat on one
side, and hinged.
Situation of Hinge. — The tube of the nest is very seldom straight,
but enters the ground with a curve (figs. 9, 10, 13, &c). The hinge is
invariably situated towards the curved terminus of the tube. Fig. 13
shows the natural position of tube, the hinge being on top, and hence
the door always shuts with its own weight. The hinge is often with only
one layer, but the remaining layers (sometimes five in number) are
continued above the hinge itself with a little upward twist (fig. 9, a, just
above arrow). This silken projection only allows the door to rise to an
angle of 60°. Often the side near the hinge is sunken into the ground,
and a ridge hangs over the depression (fig. 9, b and c, near the arrow);
Gatenby. — Life-history and Habits of Migas distinctus. 235
hence when the door rises the projection catches the back of it and
keeps it at an angle of 60°. On most doors these devices are present to
a certain degree, but some doors are without them. It is difficult to
say whether or not these above-mentioned devices are made on purpose
by the spider.
The Manner in which the Spider makes her Lid. — The spider begins
by weaving a tag-like piece of silk on the hinge side. Having collected
fine pieces of earth and stones near by, she gums them one by one to the
tag. After she has got a little patch gummed together she turns around
in her nest, applies her spinners to the little mosaic, and spins a silken
layer under it, which binds it temporarily. She then goes on gumming
the pieces together till the door-opening is covered. She then again
turns around, and spins another covering over it. In this state the door
is flimsy and elastic, and when the spider pulls at it from within (fig. 11)
it drops into the mouth of the tube. Some spiders perform their build-
ing in a night, others in some days. They generally work at night,
although sometimes in daylight. The gum appears to be exuded from
the mouth.
The Tubular Cavity of the Nest.
The depth and width of the tube varies greatly, depending, of course,
upon the size of spider. Generally the nests are from 1 in. to 1^ in. in
length, and t3q in. to fin. in width, taken lengthwise at the lid. The
tube does not remain a uniform width in its entire length, but widens
at the terminus to ^ in. (figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, &c.). The reasons for this
terminal swelling are two — firstly, to allow room for eggs and young;
and, secondly, to allow the spider to move and turn around in the nest.
Lining of Tube.
The interior of the tube is lined with a layer of silk, which is thick
if the ground is dry or crumbling, thin if it is damp and firm. The
rim of the mouth of the nest is generally thicker than the other linings.
Abnormal Forms of Nests.
If a bank is very hard or stony the spider is unable to pierce the
ground deep enough. In this case man)' kinds of curious nests are seen.
The spider generally scrapes out a shallow groove, and makes her silken
tube in it. Hence a good deal of the nest is exposed, and to cover it
the spider uses an earthy cement-like mixture of mud and stones
(fig. 10, c). This is spread over the silk until the projecting unprotected
side of the tube closely resembles a rounded stone or piece of earth. The
work is marvellously executed, and until the door is discovered it is
impossible to detect the artificial side of the tube. The door is discovered
on account of the round rim. Sometimes the groove cannot be scraped
deep enough, and then the spider makes a small nest like a nut, the door
being on one side. This protrudes from the bank, and is covered so as
to resemble a stone.
Another curious form of nest is that with two doors, one at each end
of the tube (fig. 13). These two-doored nests are met with in tubes
built under stones, on cliffs, and sometimes on trees. Sometimes both
doors are large enough for the spider to pass through, but more fre-
quently only one door is the proper size, the other one being too small.
I believe that when the young spider builds the nest both doors are large
23G Transactions.
enough for her to pass through, but that after a while she neglects
to enlage one of them, and only attends to the other. I have seen small
tubes with two very fine doors; large tubes with two proper doors are
rare. Why the spider should build a door at each end of her nest is
hard to say. I believe that she must lose sight of the fact that she has
already made one door, and, as there is no ending or terminus to the
nest built under a stone, etc., as in a normal nest built in an earth
bank, she naturally makes a door at each end of the tube. Afterwards
she uses only one door and neglects the other. This suggestion credits
the spider with little intelligence.
How Bain and Wind affect the Nest.
In exposed situations banks are gradually worn away by the elements;
consequently nests are frequently seen blown half out of the bank
(fig. 14, lowest). The spider has no remedy for this, except to spread
cementitious mud-mixture over that part of her home which is laid bare.
Fig. 14, lowest, shows a nest in the process of being denuded. Nests in
this state are very conspicuous, and I have known a spider to extend her
tube farther into the bank, so as to make it twice as long as before, the
old door, &c, still being used (fig. 14, middle). Water seldom enters the
tubular part of the nest, although the silk often becomes thoroughly
saturated.
About the Male and his Nest. (Fig. 2.)
As the male is much smaller than his mate, he uses a smaller nest. I say
" uses," because I believe that he seldom builds a nest of his own, and then
only under certain circumstances. Firstly, I should say that the female
does not eat her mate after he has accomplished his purpose. Repeatedly
1 have kept males and females through the breeding season, and in every
ease the female refrained from dining on her lord. I have found males
living in the same bank with females, and, although food was scarce, the
male was untouched. Hence I know that this cannibalistic male-eating
habit is not in vogue among M. distinctus.
It is only when the male is living in a small colony or away from the
females that lie is found in a nest which is in good repair, well hidden,
and not too big or too small for him. Males living among big colonies
are more often than not found in nests which are in disrepair. Especi-
ally* in the breeding season are they so found, for after this is over the
males retire into discarded nests, which they soon bring up to a good state
of repair. The nests they adopt are those which have lost their occupants
by some accident.
The male is never found in the female's nest with the female, but
the courting is done around the mouth of the tube. Evidently the male
does not like the idea of trusting his life to his mate; and hie could be
ill spared, for, as males of this species appear to be scare, the propaga-
tion of young would be slight if every female managed to slay her mate.
In the breeding season the male wanders over the bank at night, and
when day breaks he hie;? himself to an old nest, chink, or cranny, and
there awaits night. It is necessary for him to wander about, because
the females' nests are so scattered. Although the fewness of male spiders
as compared with female ones is sometimes exaggerated, I feel correct
in saying that the males are generally in the proportion of about one to
thirty females.
Gatenby. — Life-history and Habits of Migas distinctus. 237
Life-history.
About the months of February and March the female lays from thirty
to sixty small white eggs. These are placed between the wall of the nest
and a piece of silk stretched across a rounded part of the tube (fig. 10, Ot
the arrow).
The egg-bag is placed variously in the nest, but in fig. 14 (top)
the commonest position is shown. The piece which stretches across the
sides of the tube is fin. in diameter. Separate egg-cases, with two sides,
not connected to the tube, are rare. The young emerge and lie dormant
inside the case. After a week or so the mother removes the covering,
and often weaves in lieu of it a transparent filament-like veil of silk-
over them (fig. 10, b).
After the young become strong enough they push out of the covering,,
and wander out of their old home. Often some few remain with their
mother, and frequently are met with as late as the end of April. These
must be provided with food by their parent, for they are often a fair size-
When the young emerge from the parent nest the majority are pounced
upon and eaten by an eager, hungry horde of bank-inhabiting, vagabond
spiders. Few escape; those that do proceed to burrow their tiny tunnels
and to make their nests. They bite out the earth with their falces, which
are very strong. Of course, the state of the earth determines the length
of time taken to make the boring. The doors of the nests of young
spiders are round, very small, being less than TV in. in diameter, ami
very difficult to detect. As the spider grows she needs to enlarge her door-
Enlargement of Tube and Door.
If the food-supply is good the spider grows rapidly, and soon the
nest becomes too small for her. When she wishes to enlarge her nest she
tears away one side of the silken lining of the nest and widens that side
in its entire length. She then spins a silk web over this. The door is
enlarged as shown in fig 7, a, b, c, d, e. Fig. 7, a, shows a door which has
been enlarged once, the original door of the young spider being the circle
inside the larger door. Fig. 7, e, shows a door which has been enlarged
six times. Nests are seen with nine or ten enlargements.
When the spider wishes to enlarge her door, after having enlarged the
tube, she spins under the old door an entire silk layer the size of the
newly enlarged tube. The door after a few enlargements becomes very
ragged, and hence less conspicuous. The newly spun layer is covered with
earth where the edge protrudes beyond the rim of the old door. Where
the lids have a thick earthy layer, and only one or two silken ones, the
spider cements a rim of earth around the old door and then spins a web
underneath it. I believe the spider enlarges her door and tube six or
seven times during her life.
The Spider's Enemies, etc.
Although encased in a strong tube with a deceptive door, this Arachnid
is not free from enemies. The greatest destroyer is excessive heat. In
the middle of summer the banks, especially the clay ones, become very
liot. Unless the spider is able to capture enough juicy insects to assuage
her thirst she soon becomes dusty and emaciated, and ultimately suc-
cumbs. Sometimes before she dies, in a last despairing effort to evade
the ardent rays of the sun, she weaves a silken partition between herself
238 Transactions.
and the door (fig. 10, c, the arrow). In many cases she is found dead
behind this screen, while her door, after warping with the weather,
allows the entrance of all sorts of vermin — woodlice, centipedes, aptera,
small spiders, and a large number of other forms of insect-life. These
cannot reach her, for the screen shuts them off.
Unless there is an absence of moisture, hunger has no terrors for these
spiders, for they are easily able to exist without food for three or four
months. Frequently in a famine a spider devours her neighbour, a hard
fight always ensuing first.
I have several reasons to suspect that Pompilius fugax, &c, is a keen
enemy of M. distinctus. I have caught P. fugax dragging a trapdoor
spider across a bank. Whether the spider was caught by the fly by the
latter opening the door, or by the spider jumping out to catch the fly and
instead catching a Tartar, I know not, but I have more than once found
a pupa-case of a small Ichneumon fly lying among the remains of a spider.
The Spider's Age.
This is a question I could not definitely settle, although I have kept
specimens three years and a half. Unfortunately, I was obliged to
travel to the north for a holiday, and my pets were put with their box
in the garden, and when I returned the only remaining member of the
thirty spiders was a young one three months old.
I know that some spiders take two to three years to reach maturity,
but if the food-supply is short the time may be longer. I have kept
i nature spiders three years and a half, and possibly they would have
lived much longer. Hence the spider may be six or even seven years old
when it dies.
The Food of M. distinctus.
This consists mainly of Diptera and small Lepidoptera. The young
eat small organisms like Aptera (Podura). While catching her food she
shows a cleverness that is immensely superior to that of other sedentary
spiders.
On fine sunny days flies and other insects hover about the banks.
Now and again they will alight on the bank near a group of nests. The
spiders, if they are hungry, keep on the alert; when one hears a fly she
creeps up from the bottom of her den, lifts the door slightly, and
reconnoitres (fig. 10, b). Whilst peering out the spiders often become
rather excited when an unsuspecting fly draws nigh, and this is shown
by the rash way in which they sometimes open the door ; the fly then
discovers its enemy, and escapes. This makes the spider more circum-
spect, and the next fly that draws nigh is watched more carefully.
The person who is watching the hunting operations of the spider is
compelled to admire her great patience, and also the way she controls,
with a front leg, the peeping-out space between the door and the rim of
the tube (fig. 10, b; notice the bent leg). At last her patience is re-
warded : a fly accidentally alights right in front of the treacherous door;
the spider throws open the trapdoor and leaps right upon the back of
the fly, driving her falces into it (fig. 8). She withdraws quickly into
the tube, and pulls the door till it shuts firmly. Then she crawls down
to the end of her tube and devours the fly. The capturing takes a very
short time, and unless the observer watches closely he will miss the whole
operation.
Gatbnby. — Life-history and Habits of Migas distinctus. 239
She will seldom dash out unless the fly is right in front of the
door. If it is too far away she would be obliged to expose her body
to danger while she reopened the door. As it is, her abdomen keeps
the door open, so she soon slips back. When the spider has eaten the
fly she drops out of the door those parts which she discards.
I kept thirty spiders in a small box placed on a shelf. On the sunny
days when the flies were about I would sprinkle a few grains of sugar
in front of each door, and put the box in the sun. The unsuspecting
flies would come to feed on the sugar, and would fall easy prey to the
spiders. In winter, when few flies were about, on the fine days I would
catch house-flies and tie cotton to their wings, and make them walk over
the door. The spiders would drag them in, cotton and all. Next day
the cotton, with the dry carcase of the fly, would be found often an inch
from the door.
Spiders may be killed whilst attacking an Ichneumon fly inadvertently.
This would explain why nests, even in a plentiful insect season, are
found tenantless, except for vermin.
Even when not looking for food, spiders will be caught watching out
of their nests. Before they emerge at night they always' reconnoitre for
an hour or so. If a spider is alarmed she rushes up from the terminus
of her tube and proceeds to resist an entrance.
The Spider's modus operandi whilst holding down her Door.
Four legs (the front pairs) are, together with the falces, used to fix
on the silken underlining of the door. The falces are driven into the
middle of the door, the four legs being placed so that the claws hold to
the edges of the lid (fig. 12). The thick bristles on the ultimate and
penultimate joints of the first two pairs of legs present a spiny array
(fig. 1, female; fig. 2, male). (Fig. 3 shows a few of these terminal
protective bristles, with the claws.) The remaining pairs of legs are
placed around the tube, the claws sticking into the silk lining (fig. 11).
All the legs are slightly bent when holding on, so that the spider's hold
is elastic, and better able to withstand a jerk. When in this position
the spider pulls the door tightly, often exerting a force capable of lifting
a half-ounce weight.
Fig. 11 shows the profile of a spider holding her door. It will be
noticed how well the spider's abdomen is protected by the curve in the
side of the tube.
Sometimes whilst frantically resisting the entrance of an enemy the
spider will suddenly let go the door and make as if to rush out on the
intruder. If a person has his hand near when this happens he quickly
drops the pin with which he has been holding the door, and removes his
hand to safety. But this is apparently what the spider wishes to happen,
and immediately she turns on her back again (fig. 11) and closes the door.
The whole business is a ruse on the part of the spider, for she would not
forsake her nest to bite any enemy.
Some spiders relinquish their hold when they 'perceive that they are
weaker than their enemy, but they remain watching nearly hidden
around the bend of the nest. Some spiders run to the bottom of their
den when beaten at the door, and seek to hide themselves.
In wet weather spiders often remain at the end of their dens even
when the door is touched. In captivity spiders often weave some strands
240 Transactions.
of silk between the door and rim, in order to keep out an intruder
<(ng. 10, «, near letter D). Sometimes they do this whilst hibernating-.
If the tube pierces the bank in a downward direction, in order to protect
its abdomen while still holding the lid it would be obliged to hinge the
door on the bottom side of the open. Consequently the lid would be
continually falling open with its own weight. Hence the tube pierces
the bank in an upward direction (fig. 14).
Habitat.
This spider is seldom found many miles from the sea-coast. The
spiders prefer a sheltered bank, never, as far as I know, burrowing into
the ground, as .some other trapdoor species.
Spiders of the same species from different localities often show curious
differences in habits and manner of building their nests. This is taken
into account when I say that the results may be slightly dissimilar if
spiders from provinces other than Auckland or Wellington are studied.
I have been disappointed to find that .1/. distinctus is free from
parasitic Acarina.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.
Fig. 1. M. distinctus, female ; x 2.
Fig. 2. „ male : X 2.
Fig. 3. Tarsus of female, front leg, showing bristles.
Fig. 4. Terminus, female palpus.
Fig. 5. Male palpus, side view.
Fig. 0. Eyes.
Fig. 7. a, young spider's door, and so on to e, the adult door, from above.
Fig. 8. Female leaping on back of fly (see fig. 10).
Fig. !). Side view of sections of nests, showing different devices for keeping the door
from opening too far.
Fig. 10. Female watching a fly, which is unaware of its danger. (Fig. 8 shows what
happened a second later.)
Fig. 10. a, at D, strands of silk woven to keep the door closed ; O shows position of
egg bag (see fig. 14, top), b, at arrow, film of silk woven over young spiders.
c, M shows partition often woven by moribund spi er.
Fig. 11. Female holding door against intruder (profile).
Fig. 12. Same from above, showing position of legs, &c.
Fig. !.'3. Nests built under a stone. Both have two doors, one at each end.
fig. 1 !. Top nest with egg-case; middle nest which has been denudated, after which
the spider has bored in farther ; lowest a nest built near surface on account
of hardness of earth. (Fig. 14 also shows a bank in which the nests are in
their natural position.)
Fig. S, '.), 10, 11, and 12 do not, of course, show true position of tube ; they should be
as in fig. 14; but if drawings are turned around, the proper effect is obtained.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate XV.
MlGAS DISTINCTUS.
Face p. 24,0.]
Kirk. — Heptatrema cirrata Forster. 241
Art. XXVI. — Some Features of the Circulatory System of Heptatrema
cirrata Forster.
By Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A., Victoria College, Wellington.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
Plates XVI, XVII.
During this year 1 obtained several specimens of Heptatrenui cirrata
Forster. In this paper I give a short account of the circulatory system,
which presents some features of interest. As there are not in New
Zealand the publications containing the papers of most of the workers
on Myxinoid anatomy, I do not go into any great detail in this paper.
Ten specimens were at different times injected. Injections were made
into the ventral aorta, the dorsal aorta, and usually one of the posterior
cardinal sinuses. Although the injection of Heptatrema is often very
effective, it is apt to be capricious. Usually an injection thrown into
one of the posterior cardinal sinuses suffices to fill the whole venous
system, but at times such an injection fails in one part or more. I have
not yet attempted to inject the lymphatic system, which, from the extent
of the subdermal lymph-spaces, is probably extensive and diffuse. I
have found gelatine the most suitable injecting vehicle.
The circulatory system of Heptatrema presents, as might be expected,
many resemblances to that of Bdellostoma, but it presents also some
notable differences. The ventral aorta, for example, branches before any
afferent branchial arteries are given off; the jugular system achieves
great development; the short subintestinal vein passes direct to the right
hepatic portal vein, not to the sinus venosus.
Heart. — The sinus venosus is, as usual, thin-walled, and it presents
no considerable dilatation when fully injected. The atrium has thick,
spongy, and muscular walls. It dilates greatly when injected, and then
often presents a lobulated appearance. The passage from the atrium to
the ventricle is guarded by a single pair of deep " pocket " valves. The
wall of the ventricle is enormously thick, and its cavity is small. The
passage to the short bulbus aortae is guarded by a single " sleeve " valve
of peculiar construction. The base of this "sleeve" is attached to the
wall of the ventricle, and the " sleeve " projects into the bulbus. It is
not, however, free, but each side has a line of attachment to the wall of
the bulbus. These lines of attachment are dorso-lateral and ventro-
lateral. The terminal portion of the " sleeve " is wider than the basal
portion, and the edges of this terminal portion tend to fall together,
closing the passage.
Ventral Aorta. — Except for the short bulbus, there is no median por-
tion of the ventral aorta, forking of the aorta taking place immediately.
Each division of the aorta runs for about 1 cm. before it fives off
the earliest of its afferent branchial arteries. The afferent branchial
arteries are long and curved, an arrangement that fully provides for
the great dilatation of the pharynx that takes place when large pieces
of food are passed along it. Each afferent branchial artery enters the
wall of the gill-sac on its posterior aspect just below the point of origin
of the excurrent branchial tube. The most anterior of the series of ovi-
sacs is supplied by the terminal portion of the division of the aorta.
I'll' Transactions.
With regard to the forking of the ventral aorta, it is perhaps worthy
of note that in two preparations that carry much injection the right
division of the aorta appears as though it sprang from the left.
Dorsal Aorta. — As in Bdellostoma, the efferent branchial arteries do
not run direct to the dorsal aorta, but those of each side run to a vessel
that may, for the sake of convenience, be called a lateral aorta. This
occupies a dorso-lateral position parallel to the dorsal aorta, to which
it sends regular communicating vessels. These communicating vessels
are three in number on each side. The most anterior of these vessels are
.behind the second pair of gill-sacs.' In "A Treatise on Zoology " (Ray
Lankester) Goodrich represents in diagram the circulatory system of
Bdellostoma, the diagram being based on the figures of Muller, Jackson,
and Klinckowstrom, to ^hich figures I have no access. The diagram
shows that the lateral aortae of Bdellostoma have more connecting:
branches to the dorsal aorta than those of Heptatrema, and that in
Bdellostoma there is communication anteriorly to the first gill-sacs. In
front of the gill-sacs the lateral aortae of Heptatre?na can be traced
forward nearly to the head. Posteriorly they turn inwards about abreast
of the last gill-sacs to join the dorsal aorta, which has, of course, received
all its blood through them. The turn inwards is made at a noticeable
angle, and the last efferent branchial vessel of either side may not be
received until after the turn is made (see Plate XVII, fig. 1).
The efferent branchial arteries leave the gill-sacs on the anterior
aspect. Those of the anterior pair always, and those of the second pair
nearly always, branch just as they leave the gill-sac, the two branches
entering the lateral aorta separately. The third, and sometimes even the
fourth, efferent artery of one side, or both, may branch in like fashion.
In the preparation figured in Plate XVII, fig. 1, the second efferent
branchial artery of the left side has a distinctly double origin.
From the median dorsal aorta vessels are given off to supply the
notochordal sheath, the pharynx, and the body-wall. These last, the
segmental arteries, often alternate with each other, but posteriorly to
the heart a more or less regular arrangement in pairs becomes evident.
One segmental artery often suffices for two myomeres.
I have not been able to observe the blood-suppl}' of the pro-nephros.
With regard to the nephridial system, each segmental artery that crosses
the system sends, typically, a branch to the corresponding glomerulus.
In cases — and they are frequent — in which there is no segmental artery
corresponding to a glomerulus, a renal artery runs direct from the
aorta (see Plate XVI, fig. 2). One case was observed in which a segmental
artery sends branches to two glomeruli.
Posteriorly to the heart splanchnic arteries run from the dorsal aorta
to the intestine; the splanchnic arteries are numerous, and appear to
be one in each segment.
Numerous slender arteries pass from the dorsal aorta to the gonads.
These arteries are much more noticeable in cases in which there are
many ova forming.
Jugular System.- — There is a large right jugular vein lying above
the lingual mass and beside the pharynx. It arises well forward, abreast
of the fifth slime-gland. The vessels that contribute to it come from
the body-wall, the lingual mass, and the pharynx. Anteriorly to the
gill-sacs it resembles a sinus rather than a vein. In the diagram for
Bdellostoma already referred to, the anterior part of the right cardinal
Kikk. — Heptatrema cirrata Forster. 243
sinus is shown to communicate with the right jugular — indeed, to form
the anterior part of it; but there is no reason to suppose that that is
the case in Heptatrema.
When the right jugular of Heptatrema gets as far back as the gill-
clefts its ventral position becomes more pronounced, as it has to pass
below the incurrent branchial tubes. After passing the posterior end
of the lingual mass it receives a vein that serves a considerable part of
that mass, especially the left side. This may be referred to as the
anterior lingual vein. There next enters a vein formed by the union
of a left jugular and another vein from the lingual mass. This latter
vein, which may be called the posterior lingual vein, is formed by two
veins, one from the lower and right portions of the mass, the other from
its upper portion. The left jugular vein is formed by two somewhat
slender parallel branches lying below the incurrent tubes of the left gill-
sacs. They unite T5 cm. before the posterior lingual vein is reached.
After the vein formed by the union of the left jugular and the posterior
lingual has entered, the combined jugular vein passes backward towards
the heart. It receives the inferior jugular, a median vessel of consider-
able size. This vein is itself formed by the union of two veins running
in the ventral body-wall below the lingual mass. After entry of the
inferior jugular the jugular trunk passes to the posterior end of the
sinus venosus, which it enters in close conjunction with the right hepatic
vein.
Anterior Cardinal System. — The right anterior cardinal sinus starts
beside the notochord at the base of the cranium. It runs backward in
the body-wall until it comes abreast of the first gill-sac; then it tends
towards the middle line, coming to lie beside the dorsal aorta, which,
from the fifth gill-sac backwards, lies between it and the left anterior
cardinal sinus. It receives many lateral veins. It ends in the portal
heart. No part of it communicates with the sinus venosus.
The left anterior cardinal sinus commences in a position correspond-
ing to that of the right. It early receives a large branch from below
and beside the pharynx. This suggests that the anterior part of the
left jugular may perhaps join the sinus. Posteriorly the left anterior
cardinal sinus joins with the posterior cardinal trunk to enter the sinus
venosus.
Posterior Cardinal Sinuses, Right and Left. — A median sinus origin-
ates just below the notochord in the tail. A right sinus presently
separates from this, runs parallel to it for a little way, and rejoins it.
This may be repeated once or twice. Finally the two sinuses are well
established, and communicate with each other by several wide connecting
branches below the dorsal aorta. As the sinus venosus is reached the
richt sinus gives off a small branch, which crosses the left sinus and
runs to the portal heart. The right sinus then joins the left, and the
combined trunk, with the left anterior cardinal sinus, joins the sinus
venosus.
Segmental veins running from the body-wall enter the corresponding
posterior cardinal sinus. Usually there is one such vein to two myo-
meres. Sometimes the renal vein running from a glomerulus enters
one of these segmental veins, but more often it runs direct to the pos-
terior sinus of its side. The renal veins leave the glomeruli on the
ventral aspect. The segmental veins pass over the nephridial system
dorsallv.
244
Transaction*
Supra-intestinal Vein. — The supra-intestinal vein runs forward from
near the termination of the intestine. It ends full in the portal heart.
Subintestinal Vein. — Veins from the anterior ventral part of the
intestine unite to form a short subintestinal vein. The veins upon the
surface of the gall-bladder unite to form a cystic vein which joins the
subintestinal. The subintestinal vein then enters the right portal vein.
It does not carry blood through the liver direct to the sinus venosus,
as stated by Goodrich (hoc. cit.) for Myxinoids generally.
The portal heart receives blood from three sources — the supra-
intestinal vein, the right anterior cardinal sinus, and the light posterior
cardinal sinus; while into the right portal vein there flows the sub-
intestinal. The portal vein, on leaving the portal heart, forks, right
and left veins passing to the corresponding lobes of the liver. These
branches enter the liver on the lower (concave) surface.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Plate XVI.
Diagrammatic representation of the circulatory system.
Part of the dorsal vessels and the nephridial system, from the dorsal aspect.
a. Renal veinlet running from the dorsal aspect of a glomerulus to a seg-
mental vein in the body-wall.
b. Segmental artery sending branches to two glomeruli.
Plate XVII.
Fig. 1.
The efferent branchial vessels and the anterior part of the dorsal aortic system,
from the dorsal aspect.
The afferent branchial system, from the ventral aspect.
Right afferent branchial vessels, from the right side.
Anterior part of post-cardinal system, showing connection of right sinus with
portal heart.
Fig. 5. The jugular system, dissected from ventral aspect.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
a.l. Anterior lingual vein.
at. Atrium.
d.a. Dorsal aorta.
e.b.t. Excurrent branchial tube.
ef.br. Efferent branchial tube.
g.s. Gill-sac.
i. Intestine.
i.i. Inferior jugular vein.
i.b.t. Incurrent branchial tube.
j.t. Combined jugular trunk.
I. Lingual trunk.
La. Left division of anterior aorta.
l.a.c. Left anterior cardinal sinus.
l.h. Left hepatic vein.
l.j. Left jugular vein.
l.n. Left nephridial system.
l.p.c. Left posterior cardinal sinus.
l.pt. Left branch of portal vein.
l.v. Left division of ventral aorta.
m.a. Median division of anterior aorta.
oes.d. Oesophageo-cutaneous duct.
p.l. Posterior lingual vein.
ph.
pt.ht.
r.a.
r.a.r.
r.c.
r.h.
r.j.
r.n.
r.p.c.
r.pt.
r.v.
s.a.
s.i.
s.v.
sb.i.
sq.v.
spl.a.
v.
r.n.
Pharynx.
Portal heart.
Right division of anterior aorta.
Right anterior cardinal sinus.
Communicating branch from right
posterior cardinal sinus to portal
heart.
Right hepatic vein.
Right jugular vein.
Right nephridial system.
Right posterior cardinal sinus.
Right branch of portal vein.
Right division of ventral aorta.
Segmental artery.
Supra-intestinal vein.
Sinus venosus.
Subintestinal vein.
Segmental vein.
Splanchnic artery.
Ventricle.
Ventral aorta.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., ^
Plate XVI.
q <i u- j.
p, p. "J p. £
P3
PS
•— i
<
«
Ph
a
Far* p. 244. 1
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate XVII.
Fig. 5.
HEPTATREMA CIRRATA.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 245
Art. XXVII. — Notes on Wellington Physiography.*
By C. A. Cotton, Victoria College, Wellington. New Zealand.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
Plates XVIII-XXI.
Contents. page
Introduction . . . . • • • • • ■ • ■ 245
Structure . . . . • • • • • • • • 245
Land features . . . . . • • • • • ■ • 246
Cycles of erosion . . . . ■ ■ • • • • 248
Forms of the Kaukau cycle . . . . . . . . 249
The Tongue Point cycle . . . . . . . . 250
The present cycle . . . . . ■ 251
The Port Nicholson area . . . . . . . . 251
Coast features . . . . . . • • • ■ ■ ■ 254
The cliffs . . . . . . . . • • . . 254
The coast platforms . . . . ■ . • . ■ . 255
The Wellington fault . . . . • • . . 257
The fault-scarp . . . . • . . . 257
Nature of the movement . . . . . . . . 259
Other faults . . . . . . . . ■ • . . 260
Changes in drainage of the Karori-Khandallah or " Long" Valley 262
Type of topography . . . . . . • • • ■ 264
Summary . . . . • • • • ■ • • • 265
Introduction.
In the preparation of these notes a detailed examination has been made
only of the district lying to the west of Port Nicholson, which for con-
venience will be referred to as the Wellington Peninsula. By means of
hasty traverses and observations made from a distance, however, it has
been possible to reach general conclusions which, the writer believes, hold
true for the whole of the district represented in the locality-map (fig. 1).
Structure.
With the exception of a few small patches of Recent sands and gravels
occurring as beaches and river-flats, the rocks are a single series of sandy
argillites and fine- and coarse-grained greywackes.f They are closely
folded in a complex manner, but, owing chiefly to the unfossiliferous cha-
racter of the rocks, the structure has not yet been unravelled. On any
cross-section rapid changes in the direction of dip are the rule, but the
attitude of the strata is so much more nearly vertical than horizontal that
as far as their effect on topography is concerned they may be regarded as
vertical. There has been no folding of any consequence in more than one
* When this paper was written the writer had not seen the criticism of Bell's paper
by W. M. Davis in the Bulletin of the Am. Geogr. Soc. (vol. 43, No. 3, 1911, p. 190,.
Had he read that article earlier he would have been able to profit by several valuable
hints given by Professor Davis.
t This thick, unfossiliferous series is correlated on lithological grounds with the
Maitai system of New Zealand geologists, which, according to Marshall (" New Zealand,"
Handbuch reg. Geol., 7 Band, 10 Abt., p. 35, 1911), is of Trias-Jura age. The period of
folding is believed to be late Mesozoic.
246
Transactions
direction. In other words, the strike is reasonably constant in direction,
being very generally N. 15° E., but varying locally from N. to N. 30° E.
The rocks of the series are of very variable strength, the weakness of
some bands being due, apparently, in great part to their shattered nature.
The argillites are invariably traversed by innumerable joints, and so also
are the greywackes as a rule, but in places they are unjointed except on a
large scale. The greywackes with few joints are very strong, forming some
of the highest ridges and peaks. They weather spheroidally, and, when
broken, present an appearance similar to that of an even-grained igneous
rock. The shattered grey-
wackes have in some places
been rendered equally strong
by the deposition of inter-
lacing quartz veins filling
the joint-planes.
Corresponding to the
regular strike and the steep
dip of the strata and their
varying strength, there is a
well-marked arrangement of
ridges and valleys parallel
to the strike. This may
easily be recognized on a
map, and in the field it is
found to be the dominant
feature of the topography.
In fig. 1 the straight and
parallel courses of the
Orongorongo and Wainuio-
mata are especially notice-
able. Parallel to these the
entrance to Port Nicholson
and the Evans Bay - Lyall
Bay depression will be
noted. On the Wellington
Peninsula itself (see also
fig. 2) one continuous valley, occupied by the Karori, Makara, and Ohariu
Streams, is well marked. The position of another is indicated by the
settlements of Karori and Khandallah ; it continues southward some
distance, and its northward continuation is the Porirua Valley. Even the
high bluff of Cape Terawhiti is almost cut off from the neighbouring land
by a deep north-south valley.
KAUKAU
ANDNXW
/
. PO&T
1WARRA
NICHOLSON
TONGUE POINT
5 MILES
PS»Cf»s>fi<af t
Fig. 1. — Locality-map of the Wellington District.
Land Features.
The adjustment of stream-courses to structure, an arrangement which,
with exceptions that will be noted, has been retained by existing streams,
points to prolonged exposure to subaerial denudation for the duration of
at least one nearly completed earlier cycle of erosion. The existing topo-
graphy is composite, and has been developed during an uplift of at least
800 ft., and perhaps of 1,000 ft. or more. The amount of uplift seems
to have been nearly uniform, although probably not quite uniform,
over the area studied. During the uplift pauses occurred, some of which
Cotton.— Notes on Wellington Physiography,
247
were long periods of standstill. Further complications have been intro-
duced by the subsidence of a block — Port Nicholson and the low-lying
peninsula to the south of it (fig. 1) — resulting in piracy and obliteration of
earlier topography in the high-standing block by vigorous new streams.
The topography of a portion of the high-standing block unaffected by this
Fig. 2. — Streams and Ridges of the Wellington Peninsula.
complication may be studied first. As a typical area may be taken that
to the west of the north-south divide on which the peak Kaukau stands
The relief in this area is moderate to strong, as may be gathered from
fig. 2, the ridges in parts rising to 700 ft. or 800 ft., and in other places
248 Transactions .
to over 1,000 ft., while a few peaks reach to 1,500 ft. and more. The
texture of dissection is medium to tine.
Cycles of Erosion.
All the forms recognized appear to be due to stream-action alone. Three
sets of forms are recognized, corresponding to different positions of base-
level, and it is possible that forms are present corresponding to other pauses
in the movements of uplift. It is evident that such pauses did occur, for
remnants of coast platforms are found, in places, one above another (see
p. 255). Shortness of a period of standstill during which erosive pro-
cesses work is not in itself a reason why the period should not be dignified
with the name of " cycle." Huntington and Goldthwaite* have pointed
out the analogy between the term " cycle " applied to an erosion period
and the term " life " applied to the period of existence of an organism.
' Life in one signification is the complete existence of a normal organism
during which it passes from infancy, through youth, maturity, and old
age to death. The life of man in this sense is seventy years. In another
sense life is merely the actual period of existence of any specific organism.
An animal whose life in the first sense of the word is fifty years may die
the day that it is born, but nevertheless we say that it has finished its
life. A cycle in the first sense is ideal and can never be realized, since
infinite time would be required to reduce any land-mass to the condition
analogous to death — that is, to a plain at absolute base-level. In the
second sense any region that is subjected to erosion during a definite
period, no matter how short, passes through a cycle and can be de-
scribed in terms of age and development." The term " chapter," proposed
by Davisf for an unfinished cycle, has not come into general use. A
number of such brief cycles, corresponding to pauses during the earlier
part of the period of uplift in the Wellington district, may have left traces
on the topography not yet obliterated, and the number of nearly flat-
topped ridges of varying height which lie spread out to the west of
Kaukau Peak suggests that in the future, with detailed work and accu-
rate mapping, some at least of them may be recognized with certainty.
The writer, however, feels justified at present in grouping the observed
features as belonging to only three cycles.
The earliest cycle of which a record is preserved by existing topo-
graphic features will be called the Kaukau cycle. Base-level stood
perhaps 800 ft. or 900 ft. higher than at present.
To the next, or Tongue Point, cycle belong most of the broad
features of the landscape as seen from a high point of view. Base-level
stood about 250 ft. higher than at present, and during the cycle the
most extensive of the elevated coastal platforms, including that at Tongue
Point, were cut (see p. 255).
It was between the Kaukau base-level and the Tongue Point base-
level that other pauses occurred that are mentioned above. They were,
no doubt, brief, and the Tongue Point cycle itself was of relatively short
duration. It is, however, of importance on account of the very recent
date at which it was interrupted.
There is, lastly, the present cycle, with present sea-level as base-level.
* Bull. Mus. Comp. ZooL, Harv., vol. 42, No. 5, 1904. p. 239.
t ': Physical Geography as a University Study," Journal of Geol., 1894, p. 66.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography.
249
Forms of the Kaukau Cycle.
Kaukau* Peak (1,465 ft.) may be taken as a sample of a form be-
longing to the first, or Kaukau, cycle. An area of about 50 acres at
the summit presents the appearance of mature topography, with gently
rounded outlines, which abruptly give place to precipitous slopes, rocky
crags, and torrent-ravines, forms of the next cycle. The small, gently
graded valleys of the summit are transformed within a few yards into
torrent-courses with rock beds and steep rock walls. There is no differ-
ence of rock-strength to account for the change, but summit and sides
alike are composed of the most resistant type of strong greywacke,
traversed by few joints.
In fig. 3 the slopes of the summit of Kaukau are seen in the fore-
ground. The surface is littered with blocks of the greywacke, weathering
in the manner generally regarded as characteristic of igneous rocks rather
than of sedimentary rocks.
&^'
Fig. 3. — View of the East Branch of Ohariu Stream, looking Northward from
the Summit of Kaukau Peak.
A graded reach, at its lowest point 250 ft. above sea-level, and incised about 50 ft. below
the graded valley-floor of the earlier cycle.
Little is left of the surface belonging to the Kaukau cycle, and per-
haps the most extensive remnant is a tableland nearly a square mile in
extent, standing 950 ft. above sea-level, which exists on the divide west
of the Makara Stream. In fig. 2 it is marked P. It has an undulating
surface of mature valleys and rounded spurs, appearing from a distance
perfectly plane. It is bounded on all sides by the slopes of young ravines
eating into it.
Many of the higher ridges show very similar topography, though no
other is so nearly plane. From these observations it appears that during
the Kaukau cycle the stage of maturity was reached, and that this nearly
plane area, P, stood not far above base-level. The height of Kaukau
and other peaks above it shows that the relief remained fairly strong.
It is not probable that this cycle was the one which began when the
folded range first rose above the sea, for planation might be expected to
* Locally pronounced Caw-caw, and spelt on some maps Kaka.
250
Transactions .
be much more complete. The longitudinal drainage corresponding to the
strike appears to have been established during the Kaukau cycle and a
hypothetical earlier erosion period, for the adjustment of stream-courses
to structure which has been preserved in later cycles points to prolonged
denudation, and in rocks presenting but slight variation in hardness it
is unlikely that anything like complete adjustment could be attained in a
period as brief as that occupied by later cycles.
While some adjustments may have been completed in the Tongue
Point cycle, there is no doubt that most streams in the initial stage of
that cycle followed subsequent courses.
Owing to a peculiar set of circumstances, referred to elsewhere, the
captures that have taken place during the present cycle have to some
extent destroyed rather than completed the earlier adjustment. It is
possible that some of these retrograde changes took place as far back as
the Tongue Point cycle.
The Tongue Point Cycle.
The stage reached in the Tongue Point cycle was adolescence or early
maturity. In the streams of the Makara-Ohariu system (fig. 2), for
example, the stream-courses were graded, and the valley-floors occupied by
Fig. 4. — Graded Reach in the Makara Stream.
On the foreground and on right and left are benches of the flood-plain of the Tongue
Point cycle.
broad flood-plains, of which abundant traces remain as benches along
the sides of the valleys now trenched by the deep, young valleys of
the revived streams, and scored across by the young ravines of insequent
tributaries.
Fig. 4 represents the valley of the Makara. The sketch was made
from a broad bench of the flood-plain of the Tongue Point cycle. Portions
of this are seen also on the other side of the valley. In Plate XVIII,
fig. "1, a view is given, looking southward, up the valley from about the
same point. It shows the elevated flood-plain of the Tongue Point cycle
on the left, and in the centre the later, steeper-grade flood-plain de-
veloped by the stream, in a graded reach, in the present cycle. By
lateral swinging and migration of meanders on this flood-plain the stream
has cut back the valley-slope on the right to a steep scarp.
Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIV.
Plate XVIII
Fig. 1. — View looking Southward up Makara Valley from Surface
of Flood- plain of Tongue Point Cycle.
Fig. 2. — The Eastern Shore of Miramar Peninsula, showing Raised
Rock Platforms.
Fig. 3. — Elevated Coast Platform at Tongue Point.
The covering of beach-worn gravel is seen in the slip on the right.
Face p. 250.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIV.
Plate XIX.
Fig. 1.— The Sor
TH
Coast, East of Sinclair Head.
Fig. 2.— Scarp of the Wellington
Fault seen from Petone.
Fig. 3._Facet:s at Petone Railway-station.
Fig. 4.-" Long Valley " : View from Ngaio towards Karori.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 251
Divides in the Tongue Point cycle have in some cases been reduced to
a fairly low altitude. Where they stand only 600 ft. to 800 ft. above
present sea-level they have been rounded and their slopes graded, and
rock outcrops are few. Higher-standing ridges are more rugged, with
rock outcrops and sharpened summits, except where they are flat-topped,,
and forms of the Kaukau cycle remain.
The broad upland features in fig. 3 belong to the Tongue Point cycle.
The Ohariu and other streams, however, shown in the figure have been
revived, and reaches have been graded and widened with the formation
of flood-plains. These belong to the present cycle.
The Present Cycle.
Forms of the present cycle comprise the steep lower slopes of valley-
sides and the flood-plains developed along portions of the courses of the
larger streams. The Makara-Ohariu system may still be retained as an
example (figs. 3 and 4). The streams are not yet graded throughout their
length, but a number of flat-floored graded reaches have been worked out,
the flood-plains of which "are extensive enough to be cultivated. These
reaches are invariably strictly parallel to the strike of the rocks. The
long graded reach of the east branch of the Ohariu shown in fig. 3, for
example, is incised only to a depth of about 50 ft. below the flood-plain
of the earlier cycle. Where it turns sharply to the south-west its bed
is 250 ft. above the sea. It then follows an entrenched meandering
course in a young gorge diagonally across the strike, and falls 240 ft.
in two miles.
The present cycle, therefore, cannot be said to have passed its early
youth.
The Port Nicholson Area.
East of the ridge upon which Kaukau Peak stands there is a
complicated topography, the result of subsidence of the Port Nicholson
block. The writer is inclined to believe that either the original bound-
aries of the subsided block were broad flexures rather than faults, or,
on the other hand, the original subsidence took place so long ago that
topographical evidence of faulting has been obscured by subsequent
denudation. The numerous fault-lines suggested by Bell* run parallel
with the strike, and for this reason old faulting along these lines would
not be rendered recognizable by revival of erosion.
The north-western portion of Port Nicholson was, however, un
doubtedly let down by faulting at a relatively recent date, for along the
north-western shore of the harbour there is a clearly defined fault-scarp
(see fig. 9). Faulting along this line (the Wellington fault, see p. 257)
took place perhaps along with, but more probably after, the submergence
of the main portion of the Port Nicholson block. The fault and, in
general, the subsidence of the whole block have provided the drainage
of the whole area with a much shorter and therefore steeper descent than
it formerly had. Two of the active torrents which descended the steep
slope quickly succeeded in cutting back so as to tap the drainage of a
broad mature valley, the floor of which stood 500 ft. and more above
present sea-level (see " Changes in the Drainage of the Karori-Khandallah
Valley," p. 262).
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, map and section, pp. 537, 539.
252
Transactions.
The downthrown area is partly covered by the harbour of Port
Nicholson, which occupies the seaward portion of the drowned valley of
the Hutt River, and also portions of some smaller valleys which appear
to have been tributaries of the now dismembered Hutt. The date of
subsidence, whether before or after the beginning of the present cycle in
the high-standing block, has not been deduced with certainty from the
outlines of the partly submerged Miramar Peninsula and adjoining ridges.
Mature slopes are now the rule, and younger slopes, if they have existed,
are submerged. The deep water that is to be found over the greater
part of the harbour (fig. 5) is an indication either of a great amount of
sinking of the submerged block, or, on the other hand, of the recent date
of the subsidence. Enormous quantities
of waste must have been delivered to the
harbour by the streams which enter it
along the Wellington fault and have cut
their gorges in the post-faulting period.
Since tidal currents are insignificant to
prevent silting, the range being only 3 ft.
to 4 ft., the existing freedom from shoals
must therefore be taken as an indication
of great initial depth and large initial
capacity of the basin. The Hutt River,
entering at the northern end, has already
built an extensive delta of sand and gravel,
but the enormous loads of waste tipped
over the fault-scarp by the Kaiwarra and
the Ngahauranga have not been revealed
even by the uplift of 5 ft. which took
place in 1855 (see p. 259). Fig. 5, which
is a rough contour-map of the harbour-
floor, gives an idea of the manner in
Depths in fathoms below L.W.b. ° ... . ,
Data from the "New Zealand which sediment is being evenly spread
Nautical Almanac," 1910. out as a flat layer in the deep water
of the harbour. It will be noted that the
hallowest water is near the entrance, where a dredge is at work lifting
sand and shells. The shallow water at the entrance appeals to be due
to the accumulation of waste broken by wave-action on the outer coast.
The material furnished by marine erosion on the outer coast has
completely blocked one former entrance to the harbour. A bar of sand,
or tombolo,* has converted a former island into a peninsula (Miramar
Peninsula), and divided a former channel into two bays (Lyall Bay and
Evans Bay). A good example is here afforded of the manner in which
a coast-line is straightened (regularized) by wave-action, as described by
Davisf and by de Martonne.J
Fig. .">.— Port Nicholson.
* See F. P. Gulliver. "Shore-line Topography," Proc. Am. Ac. of Arts and Sci.,
vol. 34, No. 8, 1899, p. 1^9.
f " The Outline of Cape Cod," Proc. Am. Ac. of Arts and Sci., 1896 ; reprinted in
Geogr. Essays, 1909, p. < 90.
% " Geographie physique," p. 685 ; Paris, 1909.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography.
253
The diagram (fig. 6) is an attempt to explain graphically the evolution
of Miramar Peninsula. It does not appear that the channel thus blocked
had ever the importance of the present entrance, which has from the
first been the main channel, and is the continuation of the Hutt Valley.
Mr. Elsdon Best has drawn the writer's attention to an authentic Maori
tradition, first put in writing about 1850, which relates some episodes in the
history of the locality some seventeen generations ago (i.e. about the end of
the fifteenth century). It appears that before that period Evans Bay and
Lyall Bay were connected by a channel, which was probably kept open by
the tide through the growing sand-bar. The tradition relates that, when a
party of Maoris had retired to the island (Miramar Peninsula is clearly
indicated) with all the available canoes, another party, pursuing them, were
compelled to build rafts to effect the crossing. An account is given also of
an event which appears to have been an earthquake accompanied by
elevation of the land. By that movement the channel was finally closed.
Fig. 6. — Diagram of Evolution of Miramar Peninsula (a Land-tied Island).
In the lower diagram Evans Bay (opening to Port Nicholson) is on the left, and Lyall
Bay (opening to the ocean) on the right. Spurs running down both to Evans Bay
and to the ocean have been cut back by marine erosion, and rock platforms indi-
cating their former area have been exposed by a recent movement of elevation.
These are much more extensive at the seaward end, but even on the shore of
Evans Bay a moderate amount of cutting has been done by the waves raised on the
waters of Port Nicholson by the prevailing north wind. The sand-bar joining the
island to the mainland must have been formed at an early stage, for the spurs
running down into it have been almost completely protected from marine erosion.
The upper diagram is a restoration of the initial form of Miramar " island."
The case of Miramar Peninsula is therefore one where island-tying has been
assisted by a slight movement of the land.* It seems probable that with-
out a slight movement of elevation a shallow channel would always have
been kept open through the bar by the tide.
In a quaint paper by Crawford, f entitled " Port Nicholson, an
Ancient Fresh-water Lake," the view was advanced that the present
entrance had been opened quite recently by the sea, and that over a
dam of boulders in the Evans Bay -Lyall Bay channel the waters of a
fresh-water lake formerly escaped and cascaded down to join the " great
Cook Strait liver."
The small channel appears to have been formed by the drowning of
two small streams, one flowing north and the other south, separated by
a low divide which is evidently not deeply buried, for the spurs running-
down from opposite sides into the sand-bar are not widely separated.
* See Gulliver, loc. cit., p. 200.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 6, 1874, p. 290.
254 Transaction* .
From the above description and from fig. 6 it will be gathered that
the coast-line of the downthrown Port Nicholson block is a normal
drowned coast, passing through the normal cycle of littoral erosion
which has reached the early mature stage. It is thus in strong con-
trast with the coasts of the neighbouring high-standing blocks described
in the next paragraph.
Coast Features.
The Cliffs.
The actual outline of the coast of the high-standing block is the
result of marine erosion working back from an earlier coast-line almost
certainly bounded by fractures. This seems to be the only view tenable,
for the amount of marine erosion necessary to cut back the present
coast, with its line of lofty cliffs, from a coast-line of any other form
would be enormous, and seems out of the question when a comparison
is made with the recently revived condition of the land -drain age. There
is no evidence of a slow sinking of the land such as would be required
to keep up the activity of wave-action on a receding coast. The
depths of hundreds of fathoms recorded within a very few miles of the
southern coast indicate that the block to the south has sunk, and the
closeness of the hundred-fathoms line to the western coast indicates sub-
sidence in that direction.
The hypothesis of a fracture-bound coast gains further support from
the relation of the coast-line to stream-courses on the land-surface.
The Silver Stream (see fig. 2) rises at a height of 1,000 ft. only three-
quarters of a mile from the southern coast, and flows northward. The
western coast also cuts in along a north-easterly line, making an angle
with both the strike of the rocks and the stream-courses. The Ohariu
Stream, on the north-west, like the Silver Stream on the south, rises
almost on the coast, and flows inland.
Cook Strait, which bounds the Wellington Peninsula on the west and
south, has been generally regarded as the result of faulting since the time
of Hochstetter, whose views were followed by Hutton and more recently
by Park. Hochstetter's early view* was that one island had been thrust
laterally past the other — that is, that the movement was of the nature
of a " flaw."' As has been pointed out by Suess, however, Hochstetter's
later viewf was that Cook Strait owed its origin simply to the subsidence
of a mountain block or blocks, and he was aware that the continuation
of the North Island ranges is to be found on the same line of strike in
the Kaikoura Mountains of the South Island. This relation is brought
out by Marshall's! maps of physical features of New Zealand.
The west and south coasts present similar features. The only pro-
jecting points are those composed of resistant rock, usually bands that
are hardened with interlacing veins of quartz, filling joints. The inter-
vening, less resistant rock bands recede as bays of gentle curvature,
bounded by imposing cliffs. The larger streams emerge at beach-level,
in gorges revived and steepened by the rapid recession of the coast,
* Lccti iv on the Geology of the Province of Nelson, 1859, reprinted in " Geology
of New Zealand" (Auckland. 1864), p. 106; see also Park's " Geology of New Zealand."
1910, p. 262.
t " Reise der ' Novara," " 1864, Geol. vol. 1, p. 2.
% Loc. cit., pp. 10, 11.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 255
while the smaller ravines are truncated, appearing as notches, hanging
at various heights on the cliffs. Wherever the lower reach of a stream
makes a small angle with the coast the spur separating it from the sea
has the form of a razorback, due to lateral cutting by the stream on
one side and the sea on the other.
The coast-line is, therefore, a continuous line of stupendous cliffs,
rising in places on the south coast, where the coast-line cuts across the
highest ridges, to 700 ft. or 800 ft. In Plate XIX, fig. 1, a portion of the
south coast is seen eastward from Sinclair Head. The triangular cliff-
facet photographed is 400 ft. or 500 ft. in height. To the west the height
of the cliffs increases.
The Coast Platforms.
Along parts of the coast no relics remain of elevated platforms cut
by the sea during pauses in the movement of uplift. They have either
been completely cut away by the waves or cut off by faulting along
new lines of fracture. At other places extensive
shelves remain. The most prominent begins at
Tongue Point and extends some distance west-
ward (see fig. 7, and Plate XVIII, fig. 3). The
shoreward edge of this shelf appears to indicate _^-~-^/>-^--r~ ' ^->
..^^^laiiii^^
Fig. 7. — The Elevated Coast Platforms at Tongue Point.
the base-level at the time when the streams of the district developed the
greater part of the existing upland topography. For that reason the writer
has named that erosion cycle the Tongue Point cycle.
The height of the shelf at its inner edge at Tongue Point is 240 ft.
Its slope seaward is at first 10°, but rapidly decreases, and at the
end of Tongue Point, where the shelf is half a mile broad, it runs
gently out at an angle of 2° or 3°.
The upper surface of the shelf is covered by a veneer, 6 ft. or 8 ft.
in thickness, of gravels similar to those of the present beach. They
vary irregularly from beds of coarse roughly rounded gravel and
boulders, material similar to what is being supplied to-day in large
quantities by the smaller streams, to layers of fine flattened discs of
beach-shingle varying from the size of a threepenny-piece to that of a
penny. Jl layer of the coarser gravel is seen on the right in Plate XVIII,
fig. 3.
The varying height of the outer scarp of this marine terrace as
seen from the sea is clearly due mainly to the varying breadth of the
portions that have withstood the action of the sea, the seaward slope
of the shelf being regarded as nearly constant. At the extremity of
Tongue Point it comes down to 170 ft. Beyond the next creek to the
west, where there is a well-preserved but narrower remnant, the outer
edge bounded by the present scarp is, as might be expected, higher.
It is evidently this apparent variation in the height of the shelf that
256
Transactions.
led Park* to remark that he had satisfied himself " that it was not an
uplifted marine platform of erosion." It may be remarked that a
section, even on a vertical plane through a coastal platform, parallel to
the average direction of the coast must not be expected to yield a per-
fectly horizontal crest. It ought to show a convex crest opposite to
bluffs, where the old coast approaches it, and a concave outline opposite
bays, where the old coast recedes. To this initial irregularity there may
be added slight variations in the amount of subsequent uplift. Rem-
nants of this terrace extend nearly to Cape Terawhiti, and it may be
seen also at Te Kaminaru Bay, on the western coast.
There exists also a higher shelf, which was examined at Tongue
Point. It may be seen in fig. 7. Its height is about 450 ft., and, like
the lower shelf, it is covered with a layer of water-worn pebbles. Its
width at the point examined had been reduced by the cutting of the lower
shelf to about 50 yards.
At Baring Head, on the coast south -eastward of Pencarrow Head,
at the entrance to Port Nicholson, similar shelves occur, f and again at
Cape Turakirae. They may be seen from the deck of a steamer enter-
ing Port Nicholson. The sketch, fig. 8, represents them as seen from
CO cw». mi
Fig. 8.— The Elevated Coast Platforms between Pencarrow Head and Baring
Head, as seen from the Signal-station on Miramar Peninsula.
Pencarrow Head in centre, Baring Head on right.
the signal-station on Miramar Peninsula. They are cut through by the
revived Wainuiomata. The writer has not examined these platforms
closely, but believes they correspond in a general way to those at
Tongue Point, the sunken area of Port Nicholson lying between. The
highest platform at Baring Head appears to be about 500 ft. above
sea-level. It has been shown above that the general outlines of the
coast appear to be determined by subsidence of land blocks, but, on
the other hand, it cannot be assumed that the whole of the uplift of
which we here have evidence is differential uplift along these lines of
fracture. At many places on the New Zealand coast marine platforms
and raised beaches are known, indicating uplift of varying amount. J
McKav has recorded Recent shells on a beach at a height of 500 ft. at
Amuri Bluff, about eighty miles south-west of Wellington. If this
beach can be correlated with the highest shelf at Wellington it may
indicate that the stretch of land between has moved as a whole. The
latest movement, which took place in 1855, and was described by
* Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42, 1910, p. 586. and fig. 3.
f See Park, loc. tit., p. 585, fig. 2.
J See Marshal], lor. cit., p. 31.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography.
257
•2?
2z
Lyell,* affected both sides of Cook Strait. It was, however, a tilt to
the west, which depressed the western shore of the strait and elevated
the Wellington side as a whole — that is, the area
^ shown in fig. 1 — by an amount varying from zero
,-op on the north-west to about 9 ft. on the south-
a east. The raised beaches of the Wellington coast
■5 which owe their elevation to that movement have
o been described and figured by Bell.f They may
•a be seen also in Plate XVIII, fig. 2, and" Plate
m> XXI, fig. 2. Both views are of parts of the
g eastern shore of Miramar Peninsula.
J There is some evidence that this tilt is a
§j continuation of an earlier tilting movement in
^ the same direction, the axis of the movement
J lying a little to the west of Wellington. On the
•g south-east a series of very fresh raised gravel
a beaches at Cape Turakirae, the highest being
g 90 ft. above the sea. are mentioned by Aston. J
On the north-west there appears to have been
a downward movement of small amount subse-
quently to the general movement of elevation
the proofs of which have been given. This move-
ment, which has drowned the lower reach of the
Porirua Stream, does not appear to have been
more than 30 ft. or 40 ft. The stream had previ-
ously developed a broad strip of flood-plain, and
this has been drowned to a distance of about a
mile and a half from the sea. At Porirua there
appears to have been little or no movement either
up or down in 1855. Raised rock platforms
similar to those at Wellington are not found.
This agrees with the accounts of eye-witnesses
given in substance by Lyell. §
3
^8
Vy
\ V-
W <d
V s The Wellington Fault.
» | The Fault-scarp.
2 -g The following account may serve to supple-
^ ment the " proof of the great fault along the
J western side of Wellington Harbour " given by
«« Bell. 1 1 In fig. 1 the line of faulting is indicated
_c as " Wellington fault " (see also fig. 9, a sketch
g of the fault-scarp as seen from Kelburne, and
S Plate XIX, fig. 2, a photograph from Petone). For
Js the length of this line, about six miles, the Port
Nicholson depression is bounded by an abrupt
scarp with a base-line almost perfectly straight,
the departure from perfect alignment consisting of two very gentle curves,
concave towards the shore, separated by a similar convex curve of very
* " Principles of Geology," 10th ed., 1868, vol. 2, p. 82.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, p. 538, and pi. 41 and 42.
% B. C. Aston, this volume, p. 208.
§ Loc. cit.
|| Loc. cit., p. 539.
-Trans.
258 Transactions.
wide radius. The average direction of the base-line is N. 50° E. It makes
a decided angle with the strike of the rock strata. Where, road-cuttings
have been made parallel with the line of the scarp, rock outcrops run
up the face obliquely in one direction or the other, according to the dip
of the beds. Sloping down to the even base at an angle of 55° is a
flat and even face, separated into triangular facets by a number of
ravines. The mouths of some of these ravines overhang the shore, as
if a period or periods of standstill accompanied by erosion had sepa-
rated periods of movement the last of which took place at a very
recent date. There are, however, no traces of wave-cut shelves along
the scarp such as one would expect if the movement had been one of
elevation of the landward block. It would seem rather that the move-
ment was altogether a subsidence of the harbour block. Clay terraces
overhanging Tinakori Road, which were regarded by Bell* as beach de-
posits on a rising block, are clearly remnants of the floor of a mature
valley which was cut across obliquely by the fault.
An alternative and perhaps the correct explanation of the hanging
ravines on the fault-scarp is that the ravines were developed when the
boundary of the Port Nicholson depression lay farther out, before the final
movement on the plane of the Wellington fault. By the final faulting
movement they would then be truncated.
This hypothesis gains some support from the ^.jv^ ,^>-~.,_tw .^-—
fact that tributaries of the larger streams. /' '-^X^^-I ^£S>2cr :^\\
the Kaiwarra and the Ngahauranga, which / <^*^^yy , -^ -— ^S,-
cross the fault-scarp show evidence of recent
/
\<W/>: 0-
revival. | \ \^%{/ / . \\ \\
These two larger streams have been i i \ \\ .y/ / / \\v \
sufficiently active to capture the drainage i ' \ '\ \l -I i J^w-i
of a longitudinal valley at the back. The i X-^<^-^^f^^^^-' ^^
changes in their courses are described in a
later paragraph (p. 262). Both streams in FlGl 10- -Truncated Valley
,1 • i if i 4.1. 4.1 OVERHANGING THE NGAHAU-
their lower reaches, where they cross the ranga Gorg]
fault-scarp, flow in narrow, young gorges
(see Plate XX, figs. 1 and 2).' The lme of the J"*" ff ce §ives
tk m i l v x i-j.4.1 n a cross-profile of the upper
Fig. 10, a sketch of a little valley part of the valley-
truncated by the Ngahauranga, gives an
indication of the depth to which the latter has incised its course below
an older surface of moderate relief.
The Kaiwarra, which is the larger stream of the two, has graded its
course, and for a distance of a mile from its mouth has worked out an
extremely narrow strip of flood-plain (Plate XX, fig. 1). The Ngahau-
ranga is not graded. A fall in its lower course is illustrated in Plate XX,
fig. 2.
There is no doubt that both these streams are of extremely recent
origin. Their lower courses are consequent upon the slope of the fault-
scarp, or, at least, of the boundary of the Port Nicholson depression.
Next to the extremely young character of the streams the most im-
portant piece of evidence in favour of faulting is the abrupt manner in which
the ridges separating them are terminated as a straight line of cliffs at
the harbour side. If the theory of faulting is not entertained these must
* Loc. cit., p. 539.
Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. XL1V
Plate XX.
Face p. 358 J
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate XXI.
Fig. 1. — Narrowed Spur in the Ngahauranga Valley,
Fig. 2. — Raised Beaches and Wave-cut Cliffs on the South-eastern
Shore of Miramar Peninsula.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 259
be regarded as having extended at least a mile out into the waters of
Port Nicholson, enclosing between them the continuations of the present
eorees: and the coast must have been cut back to a straight line by
wave-action.
The problem may be attacked in two ways : (1.) Search for the
rock platforms which should remain to indicate the former exten-
sion of the spurs. A glance at fig. 5 shows that these are absent,
and that the deepest water of Port Nicholson comes close to this shore.
Rock platforms, if they existed, ought to have been actually raised
above water by the 5 ft. uplift of 1855, but for nearly the whole length
of the scarp rocks are not exposed at low water more than 50 yards
from the foot of the cliffs. (2.) Comparison with other parts of the
coast-line where marine erosion has been more or less effective in cutting
back the coast, The coast of the seaward end of Miramar Peninsula
(fig. 6) may be considered. Here, indeed, bluffs have been cut back to
the extent of a mile, as the exposed rock platform at their base shows,,
but the coast has by no means been rendered perfectly straight. More-
over, compared with its activity on the outer coast, wave-action within
the harbour is extremely feeble. A safe comparison can therefore be
made only with another stretch of coast within the harbour. When the
eastern shore is examined it is found that wave-action has succeeded
only in shaving off the ends of points. Fig. 11 represents the eastern
shore as seen from the signal-station on Miramar Peninsula. Its
irregular base-line may be noted on the maps, figs. 1 and 5. It
should be noted that this side of the harbour is bounded by a strike
ridge, and that no spurs of any magnitude run down from it. So a shore-
line originally nearly straight has been rendered but little straighter
by wave-cutting. Moreover, the increasing height of cliffs towards the
harbour - entrance shows that the greater part of the work has been
done by waves rolling in from the open sea. The western shore of the
harbour, on the other hand, is affected only by waves raised on the
harbour itself. The effect of waves raised within the harbour is seen
on the shore of Evans Bay (on the left in fig. 6).
The conclusion reached is that the scarp bordering the harbour on
the north-west, with its straight base-line, cutting at an angle across
the strike both of the rock strata and of the drowned ridges to the
south of it, with its faceted spurs and its steep-grade gorges, is the
result of recent faulting. Fig. 9 may be compared with the sketches
and photographs of the Wasatch Range given by Davis,* and also with
the diagrams illustrating his theoretical discussion of the dissection of
the face of a faulted block. f
Nature of the Movement.
The fact that the portions remaining of the scarp along the fault-
line are inclined back at an angle of about 55° may indicate that the
surface along which movement took place had that inclination. On the
other hand, if the fault-plane were steeper the slope would quickly be
reduced by slipping along the crest of the high block.
* W. M. Davis, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv., vol. 42, No. 3, 1904, p. 153, ar.d
pi. 4 ; and vol. 49, No. 2, 1905, fig. 2, and pi. 1, a.
t Loc. tit., vol. 42, No. 3, 1S04, fige. 6-9.
9*
2r>0 Transactions.
From the absence of slipped material along the base of the Wasatch
Range, in Utah, Davis* argued that the slope of the spur-facets now found
there gives the inclination of the plane of faulting. In the case of the
Wellington scarp, however, it is uncertain whether a scree of slipped material
exists or not beneath the water and silt of the harbour. Nor can the very
even slope of the facets throughout the length of the scarp be taken as an
indication that they represent the actual plane of faulting. Their slope
appears rather to be " the angle of rest for the products of decay " of the
material of which they are composed. The writer cannot agree with Bellf
that the slope is steeper than the angle of rest. It is clear that many, if not
all. of the clearly defined, sharp-edged facets owe their actual form to wave-
action at their bases, the extent to which the scarp has been thus cut back
b?ing indicated by a narrow wave-cut platform at its foot. This, however,
seldom reaches a width of 40 or 50 yards, and part of it may represent a
levelled-off scree of slipped material. It is now almost entirely covered by
the railway-embankment along the shore.
Reasons have already been given for believing that the actual movement-
has been subsidence of the block to the south-east (p. 258). It was
assumed by BellJ that the faulting movement was one of block elevation
and tilting towards the north-west, and the Porirua Stream was cited as an
example of a stream flowing down the tilted back slope of the block. There
is no doubt, however, that the Porirua followed its present course before
faulting took place. It follows one of the old strike valleys. In the valley
there is evidence of recent revival, but not such as would be required by a
tilt of the magnitude assumed ; it appears to be due solely to the general
movement of uplift which has affected the Wellington Peninsula, although
perhaps not everywhere by exactly the same amount. The drowning of the
lower Porirua may be ascribed to a less-extensive later tilt of a much larger
block of country (see p. 257).
Other Faults.
An origin by faulting is implied for some of the longitudinal features
of the Wellington Peninsula by Bell,§ and the line of the Makara Valley
is included by McKay|| among " active faults and earthquake rents."
The presence of many faults, and particularly of the last mentioned, is
revealed in natural sections. The three faults which McKayli describes
as " converging on . . . the capital of New Zealand " can be recognized,
although it is difficult to see why they are to be regarded as the continuation
of faults in the South Island. The stratigraphy of the district is too little
known to allow an estimate to be made of the amount of movement on the
fault-planes, and the period at which the main movement took place has not
been ascertained. It can be confidently stated, however, for the whole of
the area west of the Karori-Khandallah Valley that physiographic evidence
of recent faulting is entirely lacking (see pp. 262-61). The boundaries
of the subsided Port Nicholson block may next be investigated.
On the map of Port Nicholson given by Bell** there are indicated,
iti addition to the Wellington fault, five other fault-lines bounding the
* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv., vol. 42, No. 3. 190 i, p. 15S.
t Loc. cit., p. 536.
% Loc. cit., p. 539.
§ Loc. cit., section, p. 539.
|| "Reports of Geological Explorations, 1890-91." map, p. 1 ; Wellington,. 1891.
•I Loc. cit., p. 19.
** Loc. cit., p. 537.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography.
261
downthrown area. It is probable that these lines are only suggestions, for
on the accompanying section giving probable faults* two given on the map
are omitted and another is introduced. As mapped they are nearly parallel
to one another, and appear to coincide with the strike of the rocks. For
those bounding on the east and west the longitudinal ridges of Miramar
Peninsula and the Kilbirnie ridge to the west of it there appears to be
no evidence. The elongation of each ridge is satisfactorily explained as
corresponding to rock structure. Neither ridge has, on either side, a
straight or gently curved base-line, but sprawling spurs are given off (see
fig. 6). Both shores of Lyall Bay (figs. 1 and 6) directly facing the ocean
to the south are bounded by cliffs. That these are not fault-scarps there is
abundant proof in the extensive rock platforms at their bases, which were
raised above the sea by the small uplift of 1855. These prove a former
long seaward extension of the spurs. Where the tombolo (fig. 6) connects
Miramar Peninsula to the mainland this has afforded protection from
marine erosion, and the spurs run far out, that from Miramar Peninsula
almost meeting that from the mainland. To the north of the tombolo
in Evans Bay, on both shores, smaller scarps are found, fronted by
less-extensive rock platforms than those of Lyall Bay, all evidently the
work of the waves on Port Nicholson, the energy of which is very much less
than of those of the open sea. They are, however, sufficiently powerful,
^M^mm^mm^m^^^rM^ //.v
Fig. 11. — Eastern Shore of Port Nicholson, looking North-east from the
Signal-station on Miramar Peninsula.
urged by the prevailing strong northerly winds, to account for the destruc-
tion of the relatively small bulk of the spurs and slopes, the removal of
which has resulted in the present scarped shore.
Similar arguments can be used against the probability of a fault bounding
the harbour on the east. The shore-line is fairly straight for several miles
in the entrance, but the obvious reason for this is that it is the side of a low
narrow ridge, without lateral spurs, between two straight valleys. The
shore is subject to powerful wave-action, as it is not sheltered from waves
entering the harbour-mouth, and marine erosion has been able, by the
removal of quite a moderate amount of material, to cut a continuous line
of cliffs.
Farther north, towards the head of Port Nicholson, the land is higher,
and no longer a narrow ridge. Torrent-gullies, opening to the harbour
as small bays, are separated by tapering spurs which run down nearly to
sea-level without change of slope. The points only of the spurs have been
truncated by wave-action, and a marked decrease in the height of wave-
cut facets can be traced northward on successive spurs. This appears to
correspond to the decreasing energy of waves, running along the shore, with
* hoc. cit.. p. 539.
262 Transaction*.
increasing distance from the open sea. Before the delta of the Hutt River,
at the head of Port Nicholson, is reached, effects of wave-action have shrunk
to small dimensions, and the spurs which run down into the flats of the delta
are not truncated at all.
It will be gathered from the above description and from fig. 11 that
the eastern shore of the harbour presents characters similar to those of any
ridge in highly inclined stratified rocks, determined by the resistant nature
of the stratum of which it forms the outcrop. It is continuous with the
ridge forming the divide east of the Hutt River. This divide runs for some
distance parallel with and very close to the Hutt River ; hence the tribu-
taries entering the Hutt, or its continuation, Port Nicholson, can be only short,
steep-grade torrents. The nearness of the divide to the Hutt at this point
is explained by the fact that the ridge is composed of the strong greywacke
with few joints, which is the hardest rock in the district. If, on the other
hand, the ridge-face were determined by a line of recent faulting, and the
ridge itself were composed of rocks of average or varying hardness, it might
be expected that some of the streams of the fault-scarp would have worked
through and captured the drainage at the back, as the streams of the Wel-
lington fault-scarp have done. This ought all the more to be expected in the
case under discussion, since, if it be a case of faulting, the actual scarp has
reached a much more mature stage of dissection than the scarp of the
Wellington fault.
The question of what actually is the eastern boundary of the Port
Nicholson depression must for the present remain open.
There remains the line on the western side from Kelburne through the
City of Wellington to the sea on the south. This is the line of one of McKay's
faults (No. 3).* A section across this fault or a branch of it may be seen in
the cuttings of the Brooklyn tramway, but the section gives no information
as to the date of faulting or amount of movement. There is rather indefinite
evidence of faulting in the steep scarp along the front of Kelburne and
Brooklyn (the line AB in fig. 2). Evidence of faulting is much obscured
owing to the fact that the line of fracture appears to have followed the
course of a longitudinal mature valley in weak rock, the floor of which was
very deeply weathered. The amount of movement appears to have been
between 200 ft. and 300 ft. Farther south there is little evidence of a scarp,
and the fault was perhaps replaced by a flexure.
Changes in Drainage of the Karori-Khandallah or Long Valley.
This old valley might be called the Karori-Khandallah Valley, from the
names of two important settlements in it. For the sake of brevity, it is here
called the " Long Valley." Its line is now followed by the Silver Stream, the
Kaiwarra and its tributaries, the upper Ngahauranga, and the Porirua. In
fig. 2 the line of the old valley is indicated as a double broken line, and
farther north by the line of the Manawatu Railway. Starting at the head of
the valley and following it northward, we may note the changes that have
taken place. At the head of the Silver Stream, which occupies the southern
end of the valley, the divide is now 1,000 ft. above the sea, and the old
valley appears to have continued still farther southward, the divide now
being rapidly pushed northward by the activity of torrents of the south coast.
Two miles and a half from its source the Silver Stream turns very sharply
* Loc. cit., }). 1.
Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography .
263
to the west, and finds its way to the sea as a tributary of the Karori, having
thus a roundabout course eight miles in length. As indicated in fig. 2, the
capture of the Silver Stream by the Karori is a double one, two branch
ravines of the Karori tributary having successively tapped the course of
the Silver Stream. The floor of the old Long Valley here stands about 840 ft.
above sea-level. The deepening of the captured stream at the elbow of
capture is 400 ft. or 500 ft. Northward from this divide the Kaiwarra.
which here occupies the Long Valley, descends somewhat rapidly in a trench
incised in an older mature valley-floor. At the upper reservoir (U.R. in
fig. 2) it follows entrenched meanders of small radius, and a portion of the old
flood-plain on which the meanders originated remains as a bench far above
the present stream and at a height of 660 ft. above the sea. At this point a
mature dry valley on a level with the old flood-plain bench, evidently the
old stream-course, swings off to the north, while the course of the Kaiwarra.
flowing north-east, is a young gorge. The sketch, fig. 12, shows the old
valley and the young gorge of the Kaiwarra.
Following the old dry valley mentioned above, we find ourselves in the
broad mature valley occupied by the settlement of Karori. It has been
invaded by the head of the Karori Stream from the south-west, as well
Fig. 12. — Capture of the " Long Valley " Stream by the Kaiwarra.
Upper reservoir on the left : young gorge of the Kaiwarra below the upper-reservoir
clam on the light.
as by the Kaiwarra from the north-east. The north-eastward continuation
of the now broad and mature Long Valley through Ngaio and Khandallah
is evident, but between Karori and Ngaio the floor of it has been almost
completely gouged out by the numerous young deep-gorged tributaries
of the middle Kaiwarra. Overlooking the Kaiwarra there are, however,
abundant stream-deposits in Karori, and a bed of gravel on the western
slope of the Tinakori hills at a height of 600 ft.
The lower Kaiwarra leaves the Long Valley by a steep-walled gorge, and
crosses the scarp of the Wellington fault. The north-eastward continua-
tion of the valley is occupied next by a short obsequent stream, a tributary
of the Kaiwarra. Farther on, at Khandallah, it is crossed by a stream
which joins the Ngahauranga near its mouth. Still farther to the north-
east the valley has been invaded by the Ngahauranga, a stream which,
owing its activity to its position on the fault-scarp, has worked back in a
profound gorge along a nearly straight course at right angles with the
264 Transactions.
fault-line until reaching the Long Valley. It has reversed the drainage of the
Long Valley for a mile and a half. It follows a winding course, but the taper-
ing shape of the spurs on the concave sides of the meander- curves indicates
that the winding character is due, at least in part, to lateral cutting that has
accompanied the deepening of the gorge. At one point a narrowed and
almost cut-off spur is a conspicuous feature in the Ngahauranga Valley.
Plate XXI, fig. 1, is a view looking north-east across this spur and up the
valley. The height of the narrowed neck above the stream on the down-
stream side is 200 ft., and on the up-stream side 90 ft. Its breadth is about
100 yards, while the distance roundabout by the course of the stream is
three-quarters of a mile. Beyond the divide, 500 ft. above sea-level, at
the head of the obsequent Ngahauranga, is the head of the Porirua Stream,
which, robbed of two-thirds of its ancient length, still occupies the northern
end of the Long Valley. Probably this was the outlet at the close of the
Tongue Point cycle.
The cause of most of the captures in the Long Valley is, as has already
been indicated, the subsidence of the Port Nicholson block, particularly
along the line of the Wellington fault, giving a short descent to sea-level.
With regard to the Silver Stream, it seems remarkable that its capture
had not taken place earlier and in a less roundabout way than the pre-
sent outlet to the Karori Stream. A reasonable explanation seems to be
that in earlier times, when streams followed the Long Valley and the other
main longitudinal valleys of the Wellington Peninsula, the peninsula formed
part of a land-area extending to the north-west and to the south far beyond
its present limits. Reasons have already been given for the writer's belief
that the present coast was determined by fractures after the main lines
of the present drainage were established.
Type of Topography.
A consideration of the courses of streams and the elongation of ridges
of the Wellington district leads to the conclusion that, apart from local
complications due to unequal vertical movement, the topography of the
south-western end of the North Island mountain-chain is of the Appa-
lachian type — namely, an old, folded range subjected for a sufficient time
to denudation to bring about longitudinal drainage by subsequent streams
adjusted to structure, not following original synclinal folds, and afterwards
elevated sufficiently to allow dissection by revived streams to produce a
surface of strong relief. The analogy with the Appalachian Mountains
must not be pushed too far. For example, planation in the earliest cycle
seems to have been far from complete, and the absence of transverse streams
following antecedent courses is especially noticeable. Their unfortunate
absence accounts for the difficulty of railway-construction between Wel-
lington and the western coast. In spite, however, of the obvious differences
the remarkable similarity of our range to the Appalachians is brought out
by a comparison with Lesley's map of Pennsylvanian topography, repeated
by de Lapparent,* or with the detailed maps of smaller areas given by
Salisbury and Attwood.| It may be noted that the " great Cook Strait
river" of Crawford, J it if existed, must have been transverse for part of its
course ; but reasons have been given above for believing that Cook Strait
is not a drowned river-valley.
* " Lemons de Geographie physique," 1907, p. 613.
t U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper GO, 1908, especially pi. 5 and 56.
% Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 7, 1875. p. 448.
Cotton. — Notts on Wellington Physiography. 265
Summary.
The following conclusions have been reached : —
(1.) The south-western extremity of the North Island of New Zealand
is probably a horst isolated by subsidence of land blocks on the west and
■on the south, and possibly on the east also.
(2.) The drainage-system has been developed by normal processes during
a long period of elevation punctuated by pauses, the amount of elevation
being at least 800 ft., and probably more.
(3.) The nature of the longitudinal drainage suggests that adjustment
to structure was established in an earlier erosion period.
(4.) A prominent feature, Port Nicholson, has been produced by the
subsidence of a block along lines which, with one notable exception, have
not been clearly recognized.
(5.) This exception is the line of the Wellington fault, along which fault-
scarp topography is well developed.
(6.) Eecent changes of drainage have had the effect of destroying,
rather than completing, previous adjustment to structure.
(7.) This is attributable to the activity of transverse streams on and
near to fault-scarps.
Art. XXVIII. — The Composition of some New Zealand Foodstuffs.
By John Malcolm, M.D., Physiology Department, University of Otago.
[Bead before the Otago Institute, 5th December, 1911.]
I. Oysters from Stewart Island.
Most of the oysters consumed in New Zealand come from the Bluff and
Stewart Island. Owing to their comparatively large size, their pleasant
flavour, and moderate price they form a much-prized addition to the
dietary of all classes. So far as the writer knows, no analyses of these
oysters have been published hitherto.
The samples examined were procured from a fishmonger in the usual
way, and were then probably not more than three days out of the sea.
The analysis was begun forthwith, care being taken in opening the
oysters not to allow particles of the shell to mix with the contents. The
amount of sea-water and other fluid obtained on opening and draining
the oysters amounted to about 3 c.c. each, a quantity, however, which de-
pends on the time elapsing between opening and draining. As the animal
dies it undergoes rigor mortis, or some analogous change, with the result
that more fluid can be drained off; if heated even slightly the amount
is still more increased. In the samples analysed the opened oysters were
immediately drained under light pressure in a cheese-cloth, then minced,
dried, ground in a coffee-mill, and preserved in powder form.
Method
Glycogen was estimated in the fresh material by Pfliiger's method —
i.e., the weighed sample was heated with strong KOH on the boiling-
266 Transactions.
water bath for three hours; the glycogen was then precipitated with
alcohol, washed, and converted into glucose, which was estimated by
Fehling's method.
Fat was estimated by Rosenberg's method — i.e., extraction of the
dried material with boiling absolute alcohol and chloroform alternately,
with subsequent ether extraction of the material so obtained.
Protein was calculated from the amount of nitrogen on the assump-
tion that the nitrogen formed 16 per cent, of the molecule. It was
recognized, of course, that all the nitrogen present was not in the form
of protein — in fact, oysters owe much of their value in dietetics to the
presence of nitrogenous extractives; on the other hand, they contain
much nucleo-protein, or a similar body rich in phosphorus, in which
the nitrogen must be under 16 per cent.
Ash or mineral matter was estimated by incineration, aided by extrac-
tion with hot distilled water and subsequent evaporation of the extract.
The results are given in Tables I and II.
Table I. — Composition of Stewart island Oysters.
Edible matter per oyster...
Dried solids per oyster ...
Water, per cent.
Solids, per cent, (by difference)
Glycogen, per cent.
Protein, per cent. (N x 6-25)
Fat, per cent. ...
Salts, per cent.
Percentage unaccounted-for (assum-
ing that II had same glycogen
per cent, as I) ... 2"37 P16 3"72
In the above table it may be observed that samples I, II, and III were
obtained early in the season, sample IV at the end, and on comparing
these it is evident that a marked deterioration of the oyster occurs by
the end of the season : it becomes more watery, glycogen drops to one-
seventh of its initial value, the fat diminishes to nearly half, and the
extractives are relatively increased. It would be interesting scientific-
ally, and would throw a valuable light on what ought to be the limits of
the oyster season in New Zealand, if analyses were made at regular and
frequent intervals throughout the year.
Table 11. — Comparison of Percentage Composition of hJried Solids.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
lay 24.
May 25.
May 31.
Oct. 31.
12 g.
9g.
11-5 g.
8-6 g.
2-5 g.
2-24 g.
1-8 g.
75-8
75-2
78-8
24-2
24-8
21-2
3-36
3-74
0-5
12-20
1372
12-72
3-66
347
1-83
234
2-71
2 43
Protein
II.
50-51
III.
5556
IV.
60-00
Oysters.*
52-13
Glycogen
Fat
15-00
1514
1500
14-01
2-35
8-64
28-20
11-96
Salts
9-67
1094
11-47
16-23
From Table II it will be seen that at their best the New Zealand
oysters contain much less glycogen and relatively more fat than the
average American oyster.
♦Calculated from an analysis by Lansrworthy quoted in Hutchison's "Food and
Dietetics."
Malcolm. — Composition of some .Yen: Zealand Foodstuffs. 267
Qualitative Exam i nation .
Protein. — As already mentioned, oysters contain a large amount of
nucleo-protein or similar body rich in phosphorus. Besides this a saline
extract of oysters contains a protein which coagulates about 75° C.
Fat and Figment. — To the naked eye the ethereal extract of dried
oysters appears brown, as is generally the case with fats dried at high
temperatures. On spectroscopic examination this ethereal solution shows
a distinct absorption band near the red end of the spectrum — apparently
nearer that end than the characteristic band of methaemoglobin ; on
dilution the band approaches and fuses with the infra-red part of the
spectrum. It is probably a lipochrome, as it is absent from watery
extracts, and occurs only in extracts made by solvents of fat (ether,
chloroform, acetone, alcohol, amyl alcohol, &c). It was found in all the
samples examined.
II. Frostfish (Lepidopus caudatus).
This peculiar -looking fish, known in other parts of the English-
speaking world as " scabbard-fish," is found in the Mediterranean and
warmer parts of the Atlantic as well as around the Tasmanian and New
Zealand coasts. It derives its popular name from the fact that it is
thrown up by the sea in frosty weather, and is found dead or dying on
the beach. According to one view, it comes ashore voluntarily, as if
bent on self-immolation ; it has seldom, if ever, been caught alive, and
is generally believed to be a deep-water fish. In shape it is long and
ribbon-like, and has a bright scaleless skin. Unlike many New Zealand
food fishes, it has a distinctive flavour, and partly from this and partly
no doubt, from its comparative rarity it is regarded as a delicacy, and
sells at Is. 6d. to 3s. per pound. For the purposes of sale and for cook-
ing it is cut into slices across its long axis; all such cutlets include the
vertebral column, and some also include the abdominal cavity. There
is a considerable amount of waste matter in the cutlets; thus in an ordi-
nary slice as bought only 85 grm. out of a total of 134 grm. consisted
of edible flesh. The residue (36'5 per cent.) consisted of bone, skin, and
tough intermuscular septa, although the latter would probably form
gelatine during the process of cooking, and should not be considered
altogether as waste.
Fat. — The flesh is obviously fatty, and an oily scum forms on the
water in which it is boiled ; but the fat is unequally distributed, there
being much more in the tissues immediately surrounding the abdominal
cavity than in the muscles of the sides. In the first sample examined the
fat of the dorsal portion or sides of the fish amounted to 4"55 per cent.,
and that of the ventral to 16*77 per cent. In the second sample there
was 7'36 per cent, fat in the sides, and 20 per cent, in the ventral por-
tion. From the culinary point of view, therefore, the frostfish should
be reckoned as a fatty fish somewhat akin to turbot. The fat extracted
by ether is a yellow-coloured oil, half-fluid at room-temperature, and
possessing a smell which recalls that of cod-liver oil. It contains 1 per
cent, of nitrogen.
Protein. — Owing to the presence of a considerable amount of non-
protein nitrogenous substance, it is not permissible in this case to use
the total nitrogen as the basis for calculating the percentage of protein.
The following procedure was therefore followed : The residue, after ex-
traction of the fat, etc., by chloroform and alcohol, was weighed and
sampled for nitrogen-estimation — thus 10967 grm. partly dried "sides '
268 Transactions.
of fish, representing 37*45 grin, fresh material, was extracted with chloro-
form and with alcohol; the residue weighed 8*412 grm. ; the nitrogen
percentage of this was 1256, which equals 2*807 per cent, of protein-
nitrogen in the moist fish, or 17*54 per cent, protein. The total nitrogen
of the moist frostfish was found to be 3*6 per cent. Deducting the pro-
tein-nitrogen (2*8 per cent.) we obtain 0*8 per cent, of nitrogen belonging
to non-protein material. As already stated, the ether-soluble ' fat
contains 1 per cent., but even after deducting this value (0*08) we have
0*72 per cent, nitrogen to account for, and, as will be mentioned later,
this nitrogen was partly present in a special crystalline substance soluble
in alcohol.
Glycogen could not be detected in the samples of frostfish examined ;
thus 30 grm. was treated by Pfliiger's method without positive result.
The main points brought out by the analysis are shown in the fol-
lowing table : —
Table III. — Composition of Frostfish. (Flesh of "sides" or dorsal
portion only.)
Water, per cent.
Solids, per cent.
Fat, per cent.
Total nitrogen, per cent.
Protein, per cent.
Glycogen
Alcoholic extract, per cent.
Ash, per cent.
The data obtained from analysis of the ventral part of the fish are
as follows : —
Sample 1. — Fat, 16*77 per cent. ; substances soluble in boiling water
(gelatine and salts), 3*7 per cent. ; substances insoluble in boiling water
(coagulated proteins, &c), 2*73 per cent. The water percentage was not
estimated. These figures are calculated on the assumption that it was
the same as in the other parts of the fish.
Sample 2. — 24*8 grm. ventral portion of frostfish gave 4*9584 grm.
ether-soluble fat = 20 per cent.
Crystalline Substance. — On boiling fresh minced frostfish with 96 per
cent, alcohol, and allowing the extract to cool, a fine white crystalline
deposit formed. Under the microscope twTo types of crystals appeared to
be present; the more numerous were balls of fine, pointed needles slightly
bent or twisted so that they resembled puff-balls, the others were much
smaller rounded clumps of indeterminate crystalline matter. At first
sight they might be mistaken for leucin and tyrosin. When filtered and
allowed to dry in the air the deposit formed a white powder, easily
soluble in water. It gave no biuret or Millon's reaction, and did not
reduce Fehling's solution. Ammonia caused a slight precipitate. When
directly tested the powder gave distinct evidence of carbon, nitrogen,,
and phosphorus.
While frostfish is undoubtedly of high nutritive value, and an excel-
lent article of diet, the conditions under which the fish is obtained, its
doubtful degree of freshness, its high percentage of fat which from its
oily nature is apt to become rancid, the presence of a special alcohol-
soluble substance at present of unknown nature, all tend to make one
careful in advising its use for invalids. Parasitic worms — small, round,
Sample 1.
Sample 2
76*8
73*5
23*2
26*5
4*55
7*36
2*82
3*6
nder 1 7*6
17*54
Nil.
0*8
1*15
1*28
Malcolm. — Com position of some Xew Zealand Foodstuffs. 269
and coiled like a watch-spring — occur fairly often; they are probably
quite harmless.
III. Kumara, or Sweet Potato.
The kumara, or Maori sweet potato, is cultivated to a considerable
extent in the North Island of New Zealand. It seems to be the same as
the sweet potato of America and the Pacific islands generally, but some
slight differences in the composition were found, and these deserve to be
put on record. No complete detailed analysis was made.
Carbohydrate. — Starch, in the form of granules which present the
usual appearance of batata-starch, constitutes the most important of the
solids. On hydrolysis it yields a dextro-rotatory reducing-sugar.
Dextrin. — Fresh kumaras were extracted first with absolute alcohol to
remove sugar and other substances, then with cold water after driving
off the traces of alcohol. On adding alcohol this yielded a flocculent
precipitate when the alcohol present amounted to 60 per cent. This
precipitate was separated out and dissolved in water. It gave reactions
corresponding to those of a dextrin — viz., no reduction till after hydro-
lysis— and with iodine a dull-violet colour.
Cane Sugar (?). — An alcoholic extract of kumaras contains all the
reducing-sugar present. If a watery solution of these sugars be hydrolysed
the reducing-power is markedly increased. Thus in two separate samples
the increase in reducing-power on hydrolysis indicated that 63'6 per cent,
of the sugar was in this form.
Monosaccharide (? ). — A fresh watery extract of kumaras always shows
reduction. If left lying in the laboratory for a few weeks the kumaras
tend to grow mouldy, probably due to the sugars present, and the amount
of sugar of both kinds shows a slight increase (O'll per cent, in seventeen
days in one case). In the process of drying minced kumaras to produce
a powder for analysis there seems to be an increase in the amount of
sugar formed. If the drying is done on a water bath where steam can
reach the material, it forms gum-like masses, due to dextrin-formation,
so that for analytical purposes drying is best done in an oven.
Protein. — The amount of protein is comparatively small, being at
most not more than 3 per cent., as indicated by the total nitrogen. An
estimation of the nitrogen in the flocculent precipitate obtained on boiling
a cold-water extract of kumaras indicated less than 1 per cent, protein.
Fat. — The ether-soluble substances form a very small percentage of
the solids (0"27 per cent.). They resemble resins or oleo-resins more than
true fats, and it seems to be to these that kumaras owe their flavour.
Ash. — The ash contains calcium, iron, magnesium, and phosphoric
anhydride.
The following table gives the main points examined : —
Tat)le IV. — Composition of Kumara.
Sample 1. Sample 2. Sample 3. American.
Water, per cent. ... ... 68"44 67"7 77"35 690
Solids (by difference), per cent, 3P56 323 22"65 3T0
Starch, per cent.
Cane sugar, per cent —
Monosaccharide, per cent,
Protein, per cent.
Fat, per cent.
A.sh, per cent.
1 24-84 ' 3'7^
262
2-7 217
171 2-84 T73 13
0-27 ... . . 0-6
1-05 ... ... 0-8
270 Transactions
Art. XXIX. — Montan Wax.
By Theodore Kigg, M.Sc. (Jacob Joseph Scholar in Victoria College).
Communicated by Professor Easterfield.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
INTRODUCTION.
Montan wax is a hard yellowish material which, on account of its high
melting-point, is used for raising the melting-point of stearine candles,
and, on account of its low price, has also found some use as an adulterant
of beeswax. The wax was first manufactured from the brown coal of
Saxony and Thuringia, and more recently has been prepared from Irish
lignites.
In the manufacture of montan wax, pyropissite is either extracted
with light petroleum and the soluble bitumen, obtained from the extract,
then distilled in superheated steam, the distillation being repeated until
a nearly colourless product is obtained, or the brown coal is itself dis-
tilled with superheated steam.
The method of manufacture was first patented by E. von Boyen
<German patent 101373, 1st July, 1897). In the original patent E. von
Boyen* described the wax as consisting of two well-characterized sub-
stances— an acid and an unsaturated hydrocarbon. C. Hellf assigned the
formula C29H580., to the above-mentioned acid, now called :' montanic
acid."
E. von BoyenJ adopted the formula C2flH5802 for the acid, but now
stated that the other constituent is an alcohol melting at 60°, which is
readily attacked by sulphuric and nitric acids. He regarded the original
bitumen as an ester of montanic acid which is decomposed during distilla-
tion.
K. Eisenreich§ purified montanic acid by fractional precipitation with
magnesium acetate. He adopted the same formula for the acid as von
Boyen and Hell. He noted that the last portions of the acid to be pre-
cipitated melted several degrees lower than the earlier fractions, but no
attempts were made to obtain acids of lower molecular weight from these
fractions.
To the non-acid constituent of the wax, melting at 63-5°, he assigned
the formula C42H80O, and supported the formula by an ebullioscopic
molecular-weight determination, but could not find any evidence that
the substance was an alcohol.!!
* Chem. Central Blatt, 1899, vol. 1, p. 864.
t Zeit. f. Angew. Chem., 1900, p. 556.
% Chem. Central Blatt, 1901, vol. 2, p. 1285.
§ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1909, p. 991.
|| Such a formula, Cnri2n+20, can only represent an alcohol or an ether derived
from a higher alcohol ; but the low melting-point of the substance (63-5°) makes it
Oitremely improbable that the compound is anything else than a hydrocarbon.
Rigg. — Montan Wax. 271
Ryan and Dillon* gave the formula for montanic acid as C28H56Cv
The non-saponifiable portion they found to melt at 58-59°, and the analysis
gave 2-5 per cent, of oxygen, which agrees approximately with the formula
C42HM60 of Eisenreich. They also stated that no primary or secondary
alcoholic group is present in the substance.
The work of previous observers may therefore be summed up as
follows : (a.) Three investigators have assigned to montanic acid the
formula C29H5802, while one investigator has assigned the formula
C28H50O2 to the same acid; (b.) von Boyen first stated that the non-
acid constituent was an unsaturated hydrocarbon, afterwards that it was.
an alcohol. Eisenreich and also Ryan and Dillon state that the non-acid
constituent is not alcoholic in nature, but regard it as an oxygenated
compound.
In the present paper it is shown that : (1) the " montanic acid " occurring
in the wax is in reality a mixture of three acids — cerotic (C26H6202), mon-
tanic (C28H5602), and melissic (C30H60O2) acids; (2) the non-saponifiable
portion is an olefinic hydrocarbon, probably C,8H56 or C26H52, both of
which, being olefines, would have, of course, the same percentage com-
position.
Cerotic and melissic acids were described by Brodie| as constituents
of beeswax, but have not hitherto been found in any mineral substance.
The separation of these acids was tedious, involving a series of over forty
fractional precipitations by magnesium acetate, whereby the cerotic and
melissic acids were obtained in a state of purity.
Montanic acid, the acid of intermediate molecular weight, was isolated
by conversion of the crude acid into its ethyl salt, and subsequent distillation
under reduced pressure. Some fifteen fractionations were needed before
the substance could be considered pure.
After purification, the cerotic and montanic acids both crystallized in
pearly scales. Hitherto cerotic and montanic acids have been described
as crystallizing in needles ; and the crude acids certainly do so, but the pure
acids crystallize in scales, and in so doing resemble all the lower members
of the higher fatty acids which have been obtained in a state of purity.
There can be little doubt that cerotic, montanic, and melissic acids belong
to the homologous series of the higher fatty acids, and that these acids are
all normal fatty acids. A comparison of the physical properties of a number
of their derivatives supports this (Tables I— III, p. 285). In the case of
montanic acid it has been possible to show that the substance is undoubtedly
normal heptacosane carboxylic acid.
The occurrence of montan wax as the principal product of steam distil-
lation of bituminous coal is of great interest. Kramer and SpilkerJ have
shown that fats and waxes, if distilled under pressure, yield mixtures of
hydrocarbons not unlike many natural petroleums, and they have suggested
that some petroleums at least owe their origin to the decomposition of wax
derived from algae.
At first it appears difficult to imagine such supplies of wax in nature
as, by decomposition, would give rise to the immense quantities of oil present
m the large oilfields. Brown coal is, however, even more widely distributed
* Sci. Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc, vol. 12, p. 20, 1909.
t Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 1848.
% Berichte, vol. 32, 1899, and vol. 35, 1902.
272 Transactions.
than petroleum, so that the suggestion of these authors gains in probability,
in that it is known that large quantities of wax, almost certainly derived
from micro-organisms, are present in this lignite.
Kramer and Spilker's hypothesis would appear, in this light, much more
probable than that of Mendeleef, Moissan, and others, who suggest that the
natural petroleums are due to the action of water upon metallic carbides,
substances which have never been found in nature in large quantity.
If we assume with von Boy en that the bitumen derived from pyro-
pissite is an ester of montanic acid, then the fact that the inert constituent
of the wax derived from the bitumen is an olefinic hydrocarbon, probably
C28H56, suggests that the reaction during steam distillation of the wax
is represented by the equation
C27H35C02C28H57 = C27H55C02H + C28H5(i
Montanyl montanate = Montanic acid Montanene,*
just as during the distillation of Chinese wax we have —
C25H51C02C26H53 = C25H51C02H + C26HS2
Ceryl cerotate = Cerotic acid Cerotene.
It is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when a systematic
examination of the brown coals and oil-shales of New Zealand will be made,
with the object of elucidating the chemical nature of their constituents.
It is a regrettable and remarkable fact that, notwithstanding the enormous
annual consumption of coal in all countries of the world, we are still practi-
cally in ignorance as to the chemical nature of this fuel.
EXPERIMENTAL.
Part I. — The Composition of Montan Wax.
A. the acid constituents.
The following table gives a comparison of the physical constants of the
montan waxt used in this research with those of the waxes used bv Eisen-
reichj and Ryan and Dillon. §
Wax used
by Author.
Melting-point . . 78°
Acid value . . . . 86-2
Saponification value . . 88-4
Percentage of montanic
acid (if M.W. = 424) 65-0 72-66 530
It will be seen that the three samples of wax melt within 2° of one another,
and that the wax used in this research had an acid and saponification value
intermediate between those of the other investigators. Slight differences
in the rate of distillation of the original material would readily account for
these differences in the properties of the wax.
isenreich's
Rvan and
Wax.
Dillon's Wax.
77°
76°
93-02
73-3
94-56
73-9
* The fact that the proportion of hydrocarbon in commercial montan wax is much
less than that of the free acids is not surprising, for the physical properties of the hydro-
carbon are such as to lead to loss during the commercial process of recrystallization
from benzene.
•j- This montan wax was obtained from Schliemann and Co., Hamburg and London.
% Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1909, p. 991.
§Sci. Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc, vol. 12, 1909.
Rigg. — Montan Wax. 273
Crude Montanic Acid.
Crude rnoutanic acid was extracted from montan wax by the following
process : 500 grams of montan wax were digested five times with hot alcohol,
about 3 litres for each extraction. This hot alcoholic solution, containing
practically the whole of the free acids, was siphoned off, neutralized with
ammonia, and the acids were then precipitated as calcium salts by means
of alcoholic calcium-chloride solution. The calcium salts were then filtered
off by means of a hot funnel.
The crude calcium salts thus obtained were dried on the water bath, and
then pulverized and boiled out six times with alcohol. Motor spirit, although
a very good solvent of unsaponifiable matter, could not be employed for the
purification of the calcium salts, by reason of the almost unfiltrable paste
produced in this case.
The calcium salts were now decomposed by glacial acetic acid, and
the crude acid thus obtained melted at 81-5°. Crystallization from motor
spirit raised the melting-point to 82-5°, but further crystallization from
alcohol, motor spirit, and acetic acid did not further raise the melting-
point. The acid crystallized from acetic acid in granules.
The titration of the acid thus obtained, although the greatest care
was taken in the standardization of the decinormal solutions employed,
gave a molecular weight of 432 — i.e., almost the mean of the molecular
weights required for the formulae C29H5802 and C28H5602.
It thus appeared that either the montanic acid contained some inert
compounds such as hydrocarbons or ketones, or that it was admixed with
a higher acid. To test the first of these suppositions the acid was purified
by potash-lime saponification with an excess of lime, and then extraction
with hot motor spirit in which high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons and
ketones are readily soluble. The molecular weight of the purified acid,
however, remained unchanged (430).
That the acid, although its melting-point was unaltered by further
crystallization, was not a single compound was demonstrated by submit-
ting 10 grams of the acid to fractional precipitation with magnesium
acetate, for the regenerated acids from the different fractions had the
following melting-points : —
Melting-point.
Fraction I (weight J^ of original acid taken) . . 85-5°
II „ T3o „ •• 83-84°
III „ T±o „ .. 81-82°
TV -1- 74-fi0
Fractional precipitation was therefore undertaken on a large scale.
50 grams of crude montanic acid were dissolved in 800 c.c. of alcohol, the
solution rendered alkaline with ammonia, and then precipitated with 20 c.c.
of a solution of magnesium acetate (equivalent to 10 grams montanic
acid). Four fractions were thus precipitated, and a fifth fraction was
obtained from the alcoholic filtrate on cooling. The regenerated acids
from these fractions had the following melting-points: —
Melting-point.
Fraction 1 . . . . . . . . . . 83-5-84°
2
3
4
5
83-84°
82-83°
81-82°
74-76°
271
Transactions.
This practically agrees with Eisenreich's experience. He obtained the
first four fractions melting at 83°. It seems strange that he did not
proceed with further fractional precipitation.
Fractions 1 and 2 were each fractionally precipitated again, and it was
found that the regenerated acids from the first two precipitates had risen
3° in melting-point.
Fractions which melted within 1° were mixed before the next precipi-
tation was proceeded with. After four consecutive precipitations of the
highest melting fraction in each case, there resulted an acid melting at
88-5°. This fraction was not altered in melting-point by a series of
further fractional precipitations, and must be regarded as pure melissic
acid, which, according to Brodie* and to Schwalb,f melts at 88-8!*°. Jt
is, however, to be noted that the melissic acid from the oxidation of
canaiiba wax is stated by MaskelyneJ to melt at 91°.
The following is a scheme of precipitations employed in the isolation of
melissic acid. The melting-points given are those of the regenerated acids : —
Fractional Precipitation of 50 Grams "Apparently''' Pure Montanic Acid (Melting-point, 82°).
I
I
I, 83°-84c
II, 83°-84° IIT, 82° IV, SV V, 78°-80L'
d
S7°-88°
I I I I I
a b c 2a 2b 2c
86°-87° 86°-87° 84°-85° 85-5°-86-5° 85°-86° 83°-84J
Mixed (a) Mixed (-26) Mixed (a) Mixed (26)
86-5°-87-5°
h % j
88°-89° 88°-89° 86-5°-87°
| Mixed (h) Mixed (/)
/ 9
86° 82°
Mixed III
2d
2e
2/
85°
84°-84-5°
8'2-5°-83-5J
k I
88-5° 8S°-89°
Melissic acid
m
87°-88°
n
87°-8S°
Mixed (m)
o
86°-87°
P
85-5°
t u q r s
88°-890 87-5° 87-5°-88-5° 86-5°-87-5° 85-5°-86-5°
Mixed (k) Mixed (?) Mixed (m)
Melissic acid
Repeated fractional precipitation failed to yield an acid melting at about
83° which could be considered pure, but from fraction 5 precipitation
yielded lower fractions, which when repeatedly crystallized melted at
* Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 1848.
t Annalen, 235, p. 135.
% Journ. Chem. Soc, 1869, vol. 22, p. 87
Kigg. — Montan Wax.
275
78-78-5°, and were absolutely identical with the cerotic acid of beeswax.
This identity was proved as follows : —
(a.) Both acids had the same melting-point, and a mixture of the two
acids melted within 0-5° of the original acid.
(b.) The ketone prepared from each, by means of the catalytic action
of metallic iron, melted at 92-5-93°.
(c.) The ethyl esters of each acid had the same boiling-point, 285°,
at 14 mm.
(d.) Both acids crystallized in pearly scales.
Preparation of Pure Montanic Acid.
Although the method of fractional precipitation did not yield montanic
acid in a state of purity, yet by fractional distillation of the ethyl ester
of the crude acid under diminished pressure purity was at last attained.
100 grams of crude montanic acid were dissolved in 2,300 c.c. of 95-per-
cent, alcohol, to which had been added 60 c.c. strong sulphuric acid. The
whole was kept hot on the water bath for forty-four hours. It was found
that equilibrium was attained within thirty hours, but if 95-per-cent. alcohol
is used there still remains 6 per cent, of acid unconverted to ester. The
crude ester was therefore reheated with absolute alcohol and a little
sulphuric acid in order to complete the esterification, and now gave, after
removal of mineral acid, only the slightest trace of free organic acid.
The ester obtained by the above process was carefully washed free
from sulphuric acid, then dried in a vacuum over sulphuric acid, and
distilled under reduced pressure. The apparatus employed for this purpose
was novel, in that the neck of the distilling-flask was electrically heated,
and in that a special type of fractionator was used. Three fractions
were always collected from each distillation. The following diagram
shows at a glance the method of procedure and the number of distillations
performed : —
Crude Ethyl Montanatc ( Melting -"point, 66°). All distillations done under a pressure
of 14-16 mm.
A
280°-2953
i
«2
Mixed (6'^)
as
-289"
a*
-300:
Mixed C&5.I
I I
-292° Mixed(re<)
a*
-290
Mixed (nG)
<i9 al0
-302° Mixed (6«)
AG
11*
Melting-point,
60-5 61-5
Ethyl, cerotate
A9
27°/«
Melting-point, 61 -62°
B
2953-310°
I
61
-295°
Mixed (ai)
-297°
Mixed (al)
!
67
-300°
Mixed («<>)
I
610
-300°
Mixed (a'-',
62 &»
-310° Mixed (c)
65 6G
-310° Mixed (c)
I
fcs
-310°
69
Mixed (c2)
I I
fell 612
-312° Mixed (c5)
BH
32 %
Melting-point, 66'5°-67 5°
Ethyl montanate
I
el
-310°
Mixed («5)
I
ci
-310°
Mixed (6«)
C
310°
-330°
-330
I
-310
Mixed (611)
I
C8
-3-231
Residue
I
CG
Residue
I
eS
Residue
C8
16%
Ethyl
melissatk
C9
Residues
12 %.
276
Transactioni
The following table is a comparison of the physical constants of the
five final fractions obtained by repeated distillation : —
No.
Boiling-point.
Melting-
point. Ester.
Melting-
point,
Acid.
Per Cent.
Weight of
Fraction.
Mole-
cular
Weight.
Apparent
Formula.
A6
A9
Bll
C8
C9
-292715 mm.
-302715 mm.
-312715 mm.
-323715 mm.
Residues
60-5-61 -5°
61-62°
66-5-67-5°
78-7-79
81-82°
83°
7°
11
385
*\' 5^-50^2
27
413
(-,27H5402
32
427
C28H5602
16
12
Fractions C8 and C9 were obviously impure, being mixtures of montanic
acid and melissic acid, together with some ketone. The free acid derived
from these two fractions did not crystallize in plates, and gave titration
values much above that required for montanic acid. From the residue?,
after saponification, a single fractional precipitation gave a regenerated
acid, melting at 88-5°, which corresponds with the melting-point of melissic
acid.
The acid obtained from the saponification of Bll is to be regarded as
pure montanic acid,* for further fractional distillation of the ester did not
alter the melting-point of the ester or of the acid obtained from the ester,
nor did it affect the titration value of the acid thus obtained within the
limits of experimental error. Thus, acid from Bll : 1-0785 grams reqd.
N
. ^ KOH = M.W.
421.
Acid from Bll twice redistilled: 1-845 grams reqd.
43-70 c.c. ^ KOH = M.W. = 427.
The titration values approach very closely to that required for a
formula C2SH5602, thus placing montanic acid among the even members
of the higher fatty acid series. The montanic acid purified by this process
crystallized in plates, and was readily soluble in hot ethyl acetate or motor
spirit, and fairly soluble in hot alcohol and acetic acid.
In concluding this section on the acid constituents the writer wishes
to summaiize the following resuts : —
(a.) Crude montanic acid is a mixluie of cerotic. montanic. and melissic
acids.
(b.) Pure montanic acid crystallizes =n plates, melts at 83". and has
a molecular weight corresponding to the formula C28H5602. (Previous
experimenters have described it as crystallizing in needles, which is correct
so long as the substance is impure.)
(c.) Cerotic acid has also been obtained for the first time in nacreous
crys-talline plates.
B. THE NON-ACID CONSTITUENTS OF MONTAN WAX.
The alcoholic solution o the crude montan wax from which the acids
had been precipitated by ca'cium ch'oiide contained an a'most neutral
.-ubstance. which was lecovered by evaporation of the alcoholic mother
* The acid crystallized in pearly scales, which also is an indication of purity.
Rigg. — Montan Wax. 277
liquor. To remove the last traces of acid the substance was melted and
stirred into powdered quicklime, which was then slaked by means of a
solution of potash. The porous mass thus obtained was extracted with
hot motor spirit which on evaporation deposited a crystalline substance
which after repeated crystallization melted at 59-60° and was unchanged
by further crystallization.
On analysis, this substance gave the following values : 0-1492 grams
gave 04713 grams C02 and 0-1882 grams H20.
Calc. for CnH2ll. Calc. for C27H56. Found.
C = 85-71 C = 85-26 C = 86-14
H = 14-29 H = 14-74 H = 1401
The analyses shows that the substance is probably an olefinic hydro-
carbon. This was confirmed by its behaviour with bromine water, which
was rapidly decolourized when warmed with it. A rough determination
of the bromine absorbed was as follows : 0-25 grams hydrocarbon absorbed
0 073 grams biomine.
Calc. for C28H56Br2. Found.
Br = 29-0 per cent. Br = 22-6 per cent.
Note. — Bromination was probably not complete, the reaction being only allowed to
proceed for about three hours.
The molecu'ar weight of the hydrocarbon as determined by the ebullio-
scopic method pointed to a hydrocarbon of molecular weight 380.
0-64 grams hydrocarbon raised the boiling-point of 8-5 c.c. of anhydrous
freshly distilled benzene 0-65°.
Molecular weight = 380. Calc. for C2SH56 = 392.
The melting-point (59-60°), the analysis, and the molecular-weight deter-
mination all point to a hydrocarbon of the formula C2.H54 or C28H56, but
it is only by the preparation and analysis of the carefully purified dibrom
addition product that we shall ascertain whether the substance contains
26, 27, or 28 atoms of carbon.
Part II.— The Acids of Montan Wax, and some Compounds derived
FROM THEM.
Since the ultimate aim of this research is to show the connection which
exists between cerotic, montanic, and melissic acids, it follows that the
physical constants of these acids, their melting-points, their molecular
weights, and the properties and physical constants of their compounds
should be accurately determined.
The accurate correlation of such data affords no t-mall interest to the
chemist, as has been pointed out by Krafft,* Franchimont,f and more
recently by P. W. Robertson ("The Melting-points of the Anilides, P.
Toluidides, and Naphthalides of the Normal Fatty Acids"). J Further-
more, this series of fatty acids and their derivatives presents a group
unsurpassed in the whole of organic chemistry for illustrating the principle
of homology, and therefore it is desirable that the physical constants of
* Berichte, vol. 15, 1719.
t Rec. Pays., vol. 16. p. 126, 1897.
X Journ. Chem. Soc. 1908. p. 1033.
278
Transactions.
all the members of the series from the highest to the lowest should be
accurately determined and correlated. Moreover, it is desirable that the
proof of the constitution of the higher members of the series should be
demonstrated with as absolute rigidity as has been the case with the lower
acids from acetic to arachidic.
A. CEROTIC ACID AND ITS DERIVATIVES.
Since cerotic acid may be obtained from montan wax only after a very
tedious and laborious process, and since the cerotic acid of beeswax has
been shown to be identical with that prepared from montan wax, bees-
wax was therefore used for the preparation of cerotic acid in large quantity.
The beeswax employed for the isolation of cerotic acid was New
Zealand unbleached wax, which was obtained from a business firm
dealing in large quantities of the natural product, and was guaranteed
by them to be pure unadulterated New Zealand beeswax.
Th° beeswax \va> examined by Hiibl's method, which consists in
determinations — (1) the free-acid value, (2) the saponification value,
and the determination of the ratio of these two values.
The results are given in milligrams of caustic potash for 1 gram of
beeswax. In each determination a blank experiment, using exactly the
same quantities of alkali and alcohol, was performed simultaneously with
that on the beeswax.
The following are the results of analysis : —
„ , Melting-
SamPle- point
Y ree-acid > ™ , ^T , Sapomfica-
tr , I Ester Value, i . r T7 ,
Value. tion Value.
Ratio.
I
II
63° 18-62 72-34
63° 18-62 73-41
90-96
92-03
3-88
3-94
Lewkowitsch gives numerous estimations of European beeswax. In un-
bleached wax, he points out the following variations for normal beeswax : —
Melting-point.
Acid Value. Ester Value.
I
Saponification
Value.
Ratio.
63-64° 19-21 72-74 91-95
1
3-5-3-78
Th^se figures indicate that the beeswax used had rather a low saponifica-
tion value, thus inferring the existence of much cerotin in the beeswax.
This supposition was strengthened by the fact that on potash-lime fusion*
of beeswax, and subsequent isolation and crystallization of the acids pro-
duced, a product was obtained melting near the temperature required for
cerotic acid.
Cerotic acid was prepared from this beeswax by Brodie's method —
namely, extracting quantities of beeswax with successive volumes of ethyl
alcohol until the free-acid value for 20 c.c. of the last extraction had been
N -i
reduced to 2-90 c.c. ya KOH. Four extractions were necessary to do this.
lg={£ * According to Gmelin, myricin contains varying quantities of cerotin and real
jnyricin.
Rigg. — Montan Wax. 279
The free acid was precipitated by adding alcoholic lead acetate to the
boiling solution. The insoluble lead salts were filtered off, and then boiled
out repeatedly with alcohol to remove impurities.
The purified lead salts were then decomposed by glacial acetic acid,
and the free acid, after washing with water, was extracted with boiling
methyl alcohol in whicb, according to Marie,* melissic acid is insoluble.
The solution thus obtained was filtered while hot, and the cerotic acid,
which separated on cooling,, was then found to melt at 75-5°.
The acid was purified by recrystallization from ethyl alcohol, acetic
acid, and motor spirit. An acid was thus obtained meltingf at 77'5°
Brodie gives 78° for cerotic acid).
Attempts to improve the process of obtaining cerotic acid by complete
saponification of the beeswax with alcoholic potash, followed by the precipi-
tation of the acids with alcoholic calcium- chloride, thus retaining the non-
acid substances in i olution, were fruitless. It was found that the calcium
salts in presence of a saturated solution of high-molecular-weight alcohols
were easily soluble, and that the precipitated calcium salts always contained
a considerable quantity of organic impurities. Attempts with the lead salts,
using the same method, were also unsuccessful.
Cerotic acid has hitherto been stated to crystallize in microscopic-
needles.:]: Although this is the case when prepared by Brodie's method,
yet a careful fractionation of the ester of the acid obtained by the above
method gives on hydrolysis a pure acid which crystallizes in pearly plates
from acetic acid.
A titration of the cerotic acid purified by fractionation of the ester
gave a molecular weight of 392-7, corresponding to the formula§ C26H5202,
thus confirming the formula of Lewkowitsch|i and Henriques.^
Derivatives oj Cerotic Acid.
Cerotanilide. — This compound has not previously been prepared. It
was obtained by heating cerotic acid with twice the theoretical quantity
of aniline in a sealed tube to a temperature 150° to 170° for four hours. At
the expiration of this period the mixture had formed a homogeneous dark
soft solid. This was then washed with dilute acetic acid, in order to
remove as much free aniline as possible. The anilide thus obtained was
then disso'ved in alcohol, the solution rendered alkaline with ammonia,
and the unchanged cerotic acid precipitated by alcoholic calcium chloride.
The filtrate from the insoluble calcium salts deposited the anilide on cool-
ing. It was purified by crystallization from alcohol, acetic acid, and
motor spirit.
The anilide thus obtained melted at 98-5° C, and the melting-point was
unchanged by further crystallization.
* Journ. Ohem. Soc, 1895, abs. I, 81.
t The melting-point of the purest cerotic acid obtained by the author was 78°.
This was obtained by the conversion <>f the above acid into ester, and then by distillation,
under reduced pressure.
% Beilstein, vol. 1, Supplement, p. 1(31.
§ 1-5462 grams required 39-37 c.c. * KOH.
i| Jahrb. f. Chemie, vol. 7, p. 3(59.
* Zeit, f. Angew. Chem., 1897, p. 36(3.
280 Transactions.
The anilide is a white solid, fairly soluble in both alcohol and acetic
acid, but more so in motor spirit, from which, however, it does not
crystallize well.
The crystals from alcohol were large groups of fine needles, joined
together in tree-like formation. The yield of the anilide was 55 per cent,
of the theoretical.
On one occasion a sample of anilide crystallized from ethyl alcohol
commenced to melt at 98-5°, but did not melt completely until a tempera-
ture of 118° was reached. After resolidification the sample melted sharply
at the lower temperature ; and the sample when crystallized from motor
spirit also melted sharply at the lower temperature. There can be little
doubt, therefore, that this anilide is dimorphous. The only other instance
T can find of an anilide exhibiting dimorphism is that of acetanilide.*
Analysis of Cerotanilide.
Cal. for G20H51O.C6H5NH.
Found.
N = 2-97
2-66
C = 81-52
81-56
H - 1210
12-32
Cerotone. — Two previous experimenters have worked upon the ketone
of cerotic acidf : Bruckner, by distilling the lead salt of cerotic acid,
obtained a ketone melting at 62° : Nafzger, by the distillation of cerotic
acid, obtained a ketone melting at 92°.
By applying the recently patented method of T. H. Easterfield and
C. M. Taylor J — namely, the heating of fatty acids with metallic iron,
whereby stearic acid yields 80 per cent, of stearone — the ketone of cerotic
acid was easily obtained. The details of the preparation are as follows :
9 grams of cerotic acid were heated for four hours with 0-69 grams of iron
filings in an air bath slowly raised to a temperature of 340° to 350°.
Carbon dioxide was evolved when the temperature had reached 280°.
The temperature was now slowly raised until 340° was reached, and the
air bath was then regulated and maintained at this temperature for four
hours.
The ketone thus obtained was purified by the following procedure :
1 on was removed by boiling the ketone with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Free fatty acid was then removed by boiling with dilute caustic soda. The
soap thus formed was soluble in warm water, and was thus easily separated
from the insoluble ketone. The ketone was now crystallized from motor
spirit, and a pure product was obtained, which had a melting-point
93° C.
The melting-point was not changed by further crystallization from
motor spirit or acetic acid. A 55-per-cent. yield was obtained by this
method of preparation.
The ketone thus obtained is a white solid, fairly soluble in motor spirit
and ethyl acetate, but sparingly soluble in acetic acid, from which it
crystallizes in feathery flocculent masses. It is almost insoluble in hot
alcohol, a saturated solution only becoming turbid on cooling.
* Hans Meyer, " Analyse und Constitutionsermittelung Organ Verbindungen,"
p. 47.
t Beilstein, vol. 1. p. 1000.
X N.Z. patent 27607.
Kigg. — Montan Wax. 281
Analysis of Cerotone.
Calc. for C51H102O. Found.
C = 83-83 83-50
H = 13-97 13-93
Cerotone Oxime. — This compound is new. It was prepared as follows :
1 gram of ketone was dissolved in 150 c.c. of amyl alcohol, and one and
a half times the theoretical quantity of hydroxylamine hydrochloride,
with an excess of caustic potash to decompose the hydrochloride, was
added, and the alcohol then boiled under a reflux condenser for eight
hours. It was found that unless prolonged boiling took place a poor yield
of oxime was obtained. The hot solution was then filtered from the in-
organic salts, and the filtrate allowed to crystallize. The crystals were
filtered off, and recrystallized from ethyl acetate.
The oxime thus obtained melted at 77°, and the melting-point was
not changed by further crystallization. The oxime is easily soluble in
hot ethyl acetate and amyl alcohol, but is only sparingly soluble in hot
alcohol. The crystals from the ethyl-acetate or motor-spirit crystalliza-
tions are groups of radiating needles.
Analysis of Cerotone Oxime.
Calc. for C51Hi03N.O. Found.
N = 1-87 1-58
C = 8214 82-15
H = 13-82 13-63
Henpenteeonimtc* 26 01.
This secondary alcohol is new, and was obtained by reducing the ketone,
dissolved in amyl alcohol, with metallic sodium. 0-3 grams of cerotone
were dissolved in 150 c.c. amyl alcohol and boiled under a reflux con-
denser, while, at intervals, small pieces of sodium, of total weight 2 grams,
were added over a period of five hours. The solution thus obtained was
shaken out with water in a separating-funnel. The solid was filtered off
and crystallized from ethyl acetate. The melting-point of ihe alcohol
thus obtained was 97°, and was unchanged by further crystallization.
Henpentecontyl Acetate. — This compound was obtained from the above-
mentioned secondary alcohol by boiling it with a large excess of acetic
anhydride under a reflux condenser for six hours.
The alcohol gradually dissolved in the acetic anhydride, indicating that
acetylation was taking place. The solution was filtered while hot. and
the filtrate, on cooling, deposited the acetate as a white solid. This was
recrystallized from acetic anhydride, and after drying over caustic potash
in a vacuous desiccator, melted at 60-5-61-5°. The melting-point was un-
changed by further crystallization.
Analysis of Henpentecontyl Acetate.
Calc. for C53H106O2. Found.
C = 82-17 81-89
H = 13-69 13-57
* " Henpentacontane " would sound more euphonious, but " henpentecontane
is philologically more correct.
282
Transaction* .
It is interesting to compare S. Kipping's figures* for the secondary
alcohol and acetates produced from ketones lower in the series with the
data for henpentecontane 26 01. and acetate.
Difference,
Acid.
Ketone.
Alcohol.
Acetate.
Alcohol and
Acetate.
[Laurie
69°
75-76°
34-35°
41°
S. Kipping- Myristic
76-77°
80-5-81-5°
45-45-5°
35°
(Palmitic
82-83°
84-85°
47-49°
36-5°
Stearic
88°
89-5°$
61°J
28-5°
Cerotic
93°t
97°t
60-5-61-5°t
36°t
Montanic
97-5°t
101°$
66°$
35°
Ethyl Cerotate. — This compound was prepared from cerotic acid by
dissolving the acid in absolute alcohol and boiling for twenty-four hours
with 5 per cent, sulphuric acid. The ester obtained by this process was
carefully washed free from sulphuric acid, dried in a vacuum, and then
distilled under reduced pressure. The distillate crystallized from alcohol
in colourless plates. It is easily soluble in alcohol, motor spirit and ethyl
acetate, and acetic acid.
It boiled at 285° (14 mm.) and melted at 58-5-59°, and further crystal-
lization did not raise the melting-point. Beilstein gives 59-60° as the
melting-point of ethyl cerotate.
The following is a comparison of the melting-points of montanic and
cerotic acids, and the melting-points of their ethyl esters : —
Ethyl Ester. Difference.
Cerotic acid (78°) . . . . 58-5-59° 18-75°
Montanic acid (83°) . . . . 67° 16°
Analysis of Ethyl Cerotate.
Calc. for C28H5602. Found.
C = 79-24 79-14
H = 13-20 13-05
B. MONTANIC ACID AND DERIVATIVES.
In Part I the isolation of pure montanic acid was described, and it was
shown that it had a melting-point of 83°, and had a molecular weight
corresponding to a formula C28H5602.
Pure montanic acid crystallizes from acetic acid in colourless plates. §
It is fairly soluble in hot alcohol and glacial acetic acid, but is much more
soluble in motor spirit and ethyl acetate.
Montanic acid is only slightly soluble in methyl alcohol. This fact
is of interest, for, while cerotic acid is quite soluble in this solvent, melissic
acid is said by Marie to be insoluble.
* Journ. Chem. Soc, 1893, p. 466.
t Determinations by the author.
J Private communication, T. H. Easterfield and C. M. Taylor.
§ Previous experimenters have reported montanic acid as crystallizing in needles.
RiGG — Montan Wax. 283
Another feature of interest is the sparing solubility of the sodium soap
in hot alcohol, for sodium cerotate dissolves without much difficulty.
Barium montanate is fairly easily soluble in hot ammoniacal alcohol,
but calcium montanate is insoluble.
, Montananilide. — This compound is new. It was prepared in a similar
manner to cerotanilide. The pure anilide, after repeated crystallization,
melted at 101-5°, and the melting-point was not changed by further
crystallization.
Montananilide is soluble in those solvents mentioned for cerotanilide,
but the solubility has decreased somewhat. It crystallizes from alcohol
in groups of wavy needles.
The kjeldahl method was used for estimating the nitrogen.
Calc. for C34H61O.N. Found.
N = 2-80 2-40
Montanone. — This ketone is new, and was prepared in a similar way
to cerotone: The ketone, after repeated crystallization, melted at 97-5°,
and the melting-point was not changed by further crystallization. A
50-per-cent. yield was obtained by this method of preparation.
Analysis of Montanone.
Calc. for C55H100O. Found.
C = 83-96 83-91
H = 13-99 1403
Montanone Oxime. — This compound was prepared in a similar way to
cerotone oxime. The oxime, after repeated crystallization from ethyl
acetate, melted sharply at 82-5°, and further crystallization did not raise
the melting-point. Montanone oxime is a solid easily soluble in hot ethyl
acetate, motor spirit, and amyl alcohol, but somewhat sparingly soluble
in hot alcohol.
Analysis of Montanone Oxime.
Calc. for Cg5Hn, O.N. Found.
N = 1-74 1-74
Ethyl Montanate. — This compound was prepared in a similar way to
ethyl cerotate. The melting-point of ethyl montanate, after repeated
crystallization from alcohol, was 67°, and this was unchanged by further
crystallization. Ethyl montanate is a white solid, easily soluble in hot
alcohol, from which it crystallizes in plates.
Analysis of Ethyl Montanate.
Calc. for C30HG0O2. Found.
C = 79-64 79-41
H - 13-27 13-18
Methyl Montanate. — This compound was prepared by heating 200 c.c.
absolute alcohol with 1 gram of montanic acid and 20 c.c. strong H2S04
in sealed tubes maintained at a temperature of 110° for three days.
The methyl montanate crystallized out in glistening spangles, and
was filtered off and purified, by removal of any free montanic acid,
by precipitation as the calcium salt. The filtrate from the insoluble
calcium salt deposited methyl montanate on cooling, and this was purified
284 Transactions.
by crystallizing from ethyl alcohol. Thus obtained, methyl montanate
melted at 67-67-5°. The melting-point was not changed by further
crystallization.
Methyl montanate is a white soft solid, soluble in hot ethyl alcohol,
and less soluble in methyl alcohol. It crystallizes from both solvents
in glistening spangles.
Montanamide. — This compound was prepared in small quantity by
heating 0-880 ammonia with ethyl montanate for three days in a sealed
tube. It began to melt at 109°, and was completely melted at 111°. The
sample was too small for analysis.
C. MELLISIC ACID AND DERIVATIVES.
The melting-point of melissic acid obtained from montan wax was
shown in Part I to be 88-5°. Schwalb* and Brodief also give the melt-
ing-point of melissic acid prepared from beeswax as 88-5°. On account
of the difficulty in obtaining melissic acid, only three derivatives could
be prepared.
Melissone. — This ketonej was prepared from melissic acid obtained
from both beeswax and montan wax. 0-5 grams melissic acid obtained
from beeswax, and melting at 88-5°, was kindly placed at my disposal
from laboratory stock.
Melissone was prepared in a similar way to cerotone and montanone.
The ketone, after repeated crystallization, melted at 99-5-100°, and the
melting-point was not changed by further crystallization. Melissone is
a white solid, insoluble in the usual solvents, slightly soluble in hot ethyl
acetate, and fairly soluble in amyl alcohol.
A 40-per-cent. yield was obtained by this method of preparation.
Calc. for C59H1180.
Found,
0 = 84-08
84-42
H = 14-01
14-06
Melissone Oxime. — The small quantity of ketone remaining from the
preceding preparation was utilized for the preparation of the oxime by
a similar method to that employed in the case of cerotone and montanone
oximes.
The oxime, after repeated crystallization from ethyl acetate, melted
at 84°. The sample was too small for analysis.
Melissanilide. — This compound was prepared from melissic acid,
derived from montan wax, in a similar way to the anilides of cerotic and
montanic acids. The anilide, after crystallization from acetic acid and
ethyl acetate, melted at 103°, and the melting-point was unchanged by
further crystallization.
Melissanilide is a white compound easily soluble in ethyl acetate and
motor spirit, and fairly soluble in alcohol.
* Annalen, 235, p. 135.
t Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 1848.
J Schwalb — "Non -acid Constituents of Beeswax" (Journ. Cbem. Soc, 1885) — men-
tions that a ketone melting at 97-99° is produced during the potash-lime fusion of
myricyl alcohol.
Higg. — Montan Wax.
285
Table I. — Comparison of the Melting-points of the Anilides and Amides
of some Fatty Acids.
AcM.
Amide.
Anilid.
Difference, Amide
and Anilid.
62° Palmitic C16 . .
101°
-
90°
11°
69° Stearic C1B . .
109°
94
15°
Arachidic C2f)
108°
(Feleto and Ponzio)
Behenic C20
111°
> ?
78° Cerotic C26 . .
109°
(Marie)
*98-5°
10-5°
83° Montanic C2 8 . .
♦109-
111°
*101-5°
8-5°
88-5° Melissic C30 ..
116°
(Marie)
*103
13°
Table II. — Comparison of the Melting-points of the Oximes and Ketones
of some Fattv Acids.
Difference,
Acid.
Melting-point.
Ketone.
Oxime.
Ketone and
Oxime.
Caproic . .
-1-5°
14-6°
Caprylic .
Caprie
Laurie
16-5°
31-5°
43-6°
40-5°
58°
69°
20°
40°
20-5°
29°
Myristic .
53-8°
76-77°
47-48°
29°
Palmitic .
62°
82-83°
57-58°
25°
Stearic
69°
88°
63°
25°
Cerotic .
*78°
*93°
*77°
16°
Montanic .
*83°
*97-5°
*82-5c
15°
Melissic .
*88-5°
*99-5-100°
*84°
15-75°
As the series is ascended the higher members have a smaller difference
in melting-point between ketone and oxime than lower members.
Table III. — Summary of Physical Constants obtained for Cerotic, Mon-
tanic, and Melissic Acids.
Melt.
Pt.
Acid
Anilide. Ketone.
Ox-
ime.
Amide.
Ethyl
Ester.
Methyl Ester.
*78° 1 Cerotic
*98-5°|*93°
*83° I Montanic *101-5°|*97-5° ..
*88-5°i Melissic. i *103° 1*99-5-100°
*77°
*82;1
*84°
109° (Marie) *58-5-59° . . 60° (Marie)
*111° .. 1*67° .. !*67-67-5°
116° (Marie) ! 73° (Marie) j 74-5° (Marie)
* Determinations by the author.
286 Transactions.
Part III. — Constitution of the Higher Fatty Actds.
It has been shown in Part I that three acids — cerotie. montanie, and
melissie — exist side by side in montan wax. It was also shown in Part II
that the properties of these three acids are closely related, and that their
corresponding compounds are similar. It would hardly seem likely that
three such compounds, possessing properties so closely related, should
exist side by side in montan wax unless there be some simple constitutional
relationship between them.
Experiments have been made to show the relation of these acids to one
another and also to acids lower in the series.
(A.) The Relationship to Acids Lower in the Series.
Mai* showed that when the barium salts of palmitic or stearic acid
were distilled with sodium methylate, hydrocarbons resulted. From
barium palmitate he thus obtained n.-pentadecan and from stearic acid
n.-heptadecan.
If barium montanate is heated with sodium ethylate, it should, if it
behaves like palmitate and stearate of barium, give a hydrocarbon,
n.-heptacosane. C27H5G.
If this hydrocarbon is a normal primary paraffin it will be identical
with the compound obtained by Krafft by the reduction of myristone,
and montanie acid will then also contain a normal primary chain of carbon
atoms. It will still remain uncertain whether the carboxyl group is at
the end of the chain, for though the ease of bromination suggests that the
bromine enters the chain in the a position, it does not show that the
carboxyl group is at the end of the chain (isobutyric acid brominates
more readily than normal butyric acid).
Calcium montanate when distilled with sodium ethylate gave a hydro-
carbon, which after recrystallizing melted at 56-5-57-5°. A sample of
normal heptacosane prepared by the reduction of the myristone with
hydriodic acid melted at 59-60°. When equal quantities of the two hydro-
carbons were mixed the product melted at 58-59°— i.e., half-way between
the two. There can, under these circumstances, be little doubt that the
hydrocarbon from montanie acid was only slightly impure n.-heptacosane,
otherwise the mixture would have melted almost for a certainty at a lower
temperature than the melting-point of the lower melting-point hydro-
carbon.
(B.) The Relationship existing between the Three Higher Fatty Acids.
Attempts were made to degrade montanie acid to cerotie acid, but,
although much work was done in this direction, no definite conclusion
has been arrived at. It was hoped that degradation would be effected
by the following procedure, which is based on that employed by Le Seur
in the degradation of stearic acid* : (a) Formation of a brommontanic
acid ; (h) production of the unsaturated acid direct, or the formation of
the a hydroxy acid and the conversion of this compound into the un-
saturated acid ; (c) the oxidation of the unsaturated acid into the lower
homologue.
o
* Berichte, vol. 22. 1889, p. 2133.
Rigg. — Montan Wax. 287
The first step (a) took place without difficulty ; in step (b) the a hydroxy
acid was readily obtained, but all attempts to prepare the pure unsaturated
acid were unsuccessful, and step (c) could not therefore be attempted.
Le Seur,* in the degradation of stearic acid to palmitic, also experienced
considerable difficulty in the isolation of pure unsaturated acid (Aa oleic
acid). He only obtained a 10-per-cent. yield.
The following is a brief description of the compounds isolated and the
experiments made in connection with the degradation of montanic acid
to cerotic : —
Brommontanic Acid. — Hell and Sadomsky's methodt was used for the
preparation of this compound. 6 grams of ethyl montanate were ground
with 0-19 grams of dried red phosphorus, which had been previously freed
from phosphorous acid by repeated washing with water. Anhydrous
bromine was now added drop by drop to the mixture contained in a flask.
There was no violent action such as Le Seur records in the case of the
formation of bromstearic acid. The contents of the flask were then
warmed on the water bath for two hours under a reflux condenser. The
condenser was now removed, and the excess of bromine allowed to escape.
The molten mass thus obtained was poured into cold water. The crude
brommontanic acid was melted twice in fresh water to decompose any
acid bromide.
The crude brommontanic acid was then crystallized from acetic acid
and motor spirit. By this means a pure compound was obtained, which
melted at 75° C. The melting-point did not change on further crystal-
lization.
Brommontanic acid crystallizes from acetic acid in colourless hexagonal
plates. It is easily soluble in acetic acid and motor spirit ; the yield
obtained after two crystallizations was 60 per cent, of the theoretical.
Calc. for C28H55Br02. Found.
Br. = 15-90 15-81
Attempts to remove hydrobromic acid from brommontanic acid by
means of pyridine, quinoline, and a concentrated solution of caustic potash
did not result in the production of the unsaturated acid, as had been
expected.
The hydroxy acid could easily be obtained, mixed with the unsaturated
acid, by the action of 30-per-cent. alcoholic potash on brommontanic acid,
but all attempts to remove water from it by means of ortho-phosphoric
acid which had previously been heated to 200° were unsuccessful.
In conclusion, the author wishes to thauk Professor Easterfield for
suggesting this subject for research, and also for much practical advice,
without which the writer could not have undertaken this investigation.
*»•
* Journ. Chem. Soc. 1904, p. 1708.
t Berichte, vol. 24, 1891, p. 2390.
288 Transactions.
Art. XXX. — The Chemistry of Bush Sickness*
By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
The mysterious wasting condition locally known as ' bush sickness."
which always eventually appears in ruminating herbivora pastured on
certain areas of pumice country in the North Island situated near the inter-
section of the 38th parallel of E. latitude and the 176th meridian of S.
longitude has been the subject of much consideration for the past fourteen
years, though it is only within the last two years that any adequate provi-
sion has been made to submit the matter to systematic research. From
the references given at the end of this paper one may find the little that
is known regarding the veterinary aspect of the matter. It is desired
here, at the direction of the Minister of Agriculture, to record some facts
which have been elucidated through the chemical analysis of sundry
specimens which I from time to time have collected or received. The
reasons why the matter should be referred to a chemist to investigate are
given in an article in the " Journal of the New Zealand Department of
Agriculture " for November, 1911 (vol. 3, No. 5).
An ordinary analysis of the soils of the affected district does not show
any reason why stock should not thrive on the herbage grown by these
soils. In Table 6 are given the total amounts of constituents of the soil
obtained by breaking up the silicates with hydrofluoric acid. The
manganese is perhaps high for New Zealand soils, but Hilgard quotes
analyses of American soils with a greater percentage (see p. 372,
" Soils "). Table 5 gives the chemical analysis as ordinarily stated for
agricultural purposes. Analyses of grass-ashes are given in Table 1.
In considering these results it must be remembered that they do not
give constituents which may be present in amounts less than one-
hundredth of 1 per cent., such as copper, barium, &c, and that it is
possible that some of these constituents if taken up by the herbage
might affect the health of beasts pastured thereon. To obtain a clue as
to what element may exist in soil and grass that would produce bush
sickness it is necessary to systematically examine many animal specimens,
and it is this work which is being given first place in the research.
As the symptoms of bush sickness would accord with those produced
by chronic mineral poisoning, one of my first experiments was to examine
the liver of a sick animal for traces of heavy metals. To my astonishment,
I obtained a considerable quantity of copper from the ash of a liver from
a steer which was killed under veterinary supervision as being a typical
bush-sick animal. On consideration it appeared possible that copper
* " Bush sickness" occurs in ruminants pastured on land which has been recently
reclaimed from forest, or on open country which has been laid down in English pasture
for over twenty years. Veterinarians can detect no abnormal micro-organisms or signs
of disease in the wasting animal. Affected animals recover as soon as they are moved
on to healthy country. The affection is confined to a definite area of pumice country,
outside of which it does not spread, but within the area the sickness always in time
(a few months in sheep, longer in cattle) develops in cattle and sheep. The affected
area grows an abundance of green pasture — English grasses and clovers — at all times
of the year, and yet the animals become emaciated, and eventually die if not removed.
Ruminants from other parts of the country on being placed on " sick " country experi-
ence decided benefit for the change and fatten for a time. Horses fed for years con-
tinuously and entirely on the affected pasture are not injuriously affected.
Aston. — Chemistry of Bush Sickness. 289
might have dropped into the sample while it was being dried, there being
always a certain amount of copper and brass dust in most laboratories.
For the work a room was therefore set aside in which copper utensils,
brass bunsens, and all apparatus containing copper were rigidly excluded,
and any brass fittings were coated with varnish. Further specimens were
obtained. and analysed, great care being taken to guard against adventi-
tious entry of copper into the assay. The results of analysis of these
specimens are given in Tables 3 and 4. They show that there is always
an excess of copper (compared with the amounts found by the authorities
quoted below) in the livers of sheep suffering from bush sickness, although
when these livers are extremely fatty the copper is diminished ; but if
calculated on the dried fat-free liver the percentage is always excessive.
Analyses of the livers of healthy sheep killed for consumption have
shown, however, that a comparatively large amount of copper in the
liver is quite consistent with health. Further, on dosing sheep and cattle
with copper-acetate for over a year their livers were found to take up
much larger amounts of copper than any liver hitherto examined with-
out producing any of the final symptoms of bush sickness. Feeding
experiments conducted by Mr. H. A. Reid, F.R.C.V.S., at Wallaceville
Laboratory, in which copper-acetate in small doses was given with the
food to sheep, showed that the liver could absorb large amounts of copper
and remain healthy. The greater part of the copper was no doubt elimi-
nated in the faeces. Some of the sheep died of a braxy-like disease, but
others remained healthy, and the experiments were discontinued after
they had been going on for seventeen months. Experiments with calves
and rabbits extending over a similar period yielded negative results, which
supports the experiments of du Moulin (Journ. Pharm., 5, 13, p. 189 ;
abst. in J.C.S., 1883, p. 483), who gave doses of from \ gram to 1 gram
of copper-subacetate every day for six weeks to dogs and rabbits without
producing poisonous effects. The bulk of the evidence at present is
against the hypothesis that copper is a causative agent in producing
bush sickness, but the results obtained are so full of interest that it is
deemed advisable to publish them at this stage.
Copper is certainly a normal liver constituent in sheep and cattle.
Wynter Blyth (" Poisons," 1895, p. 613) states that a sheep's liver
contains 1 part of copper in 20,000 (0-005 per cent.), and quotes
Dupre's statement that in the kidneys and livers of ruminants copper
may always be found. Professor Malcolm informs me that the liver of
the ox normally contains 0-00225 to 0-0051 per cent, copper. Professor
Gilruth refers to articles by Lehman (Arch. f. Hygiene) in which the
author gives 0-0048 as the percentage of copper in dried ox-liver. In
sheep normally he found 0-0018 per cent, in the dried liver, but in
copper districts only half that quantity in the liver but five times that
quantity in the heart. Analysis of hearts from bush-disease areas do
not show any such excess of copper.
Ellenberger and Hofmeister (Beid. Centr., 1883, pp. 606-9 ; abst. in
J.C.S.. 1884, p. 474) experimented with sheep, giving doses of \ gram to
3 grams. Among the negative results they obtained were no alteration of
the muscular structure, no acceleration of the motion of the heart, no
uniform alteration in the microscopic appearance of the blood-corpuscles,
no alteration of the respiration nor of the secretion of the urine.
Amongst the positive results were the presence of albumen, blood, and
bile in the urine, flaccidity of the muscles, weakness, and loss of appetite.
They note that the excretion of copper from the system is chiefly by the
10 -Trans.
290 Transactions.
bile, partly by the urine but in lesser degree ; that the liver retains the
copper with great tenacity and the pancreas with almost equal strength,
and that the kidneys do not retain it as much as the other two organs.
The nervous and muscular systems do not contain enough to interfere with
their action. They recommend numerous small doses in order to obtain
chronic effects. My experiments show that the pancreas does not contain
much copper. Max Klemptner (Chem. Centr., 1894, ii, 620; abst. in J.C.S.,
1895, p. 321) records the following symptoms in poisoning by sodium cupric
tartrate : Atrophy both in acute and chronic cases ; diarrhoea some time
before death, and persistent vomiting, in chronic cases ; enfeebled pulse
and laboured respiration. When subcutaneously injected into the pleura
the salt produces weakness and stiffness of the hinder extremities ; the
same is noticed when the salt or copper haemoglobin is exhibited. In
one case blood and albumen were found in the urine. Copper was not
found in the blood serum, but in the corpuscles.
The question whether chronic copper poisoning can occur in animals
is evidently doubted by many authorities. A. Koldeway (Chem. Centr.,
1896, ii, 1041 ; abst. in J.C.S., 1898, p. 39) states that no noteworthy evil
results follow small doses of copper (or even large doses) in people in good
health, or in animals that vomit readily ; long continuance in the use of
copper, however, produces slight degenerative changes in the liver and
kidneys, which can only be detected on microscopic examination. He
doubts the existence of chronic copper poisoning amongst workers in that
metal, any illness occurring probably being due to other metallic impurities
of the copper. L. Lewin (Deusch Med. Wochenschr., 1900, 26, 689 ; abst.
in J.S.C.I., 19, 1900, 1183) could not discover any phenomena indicating
chronic poisoning in copper- workers. The editor of Taylor's " Medical
Jurisprudence " (1905, p. 476) is evidently doubtful as to whether chronic
copper poisoning can occur in human subjects. This doubt should be
even greater as to whether the poisoning can occur in herbivora.
Dieulafait (Compt. Rend., 89, 453: abst. in J.C.S., 1879, p. 1020;
1880, p. 489) states that copper occurs in all plants that live on primary
rocks, or on soils derived from those rocks. One hundred grams of rock
will always give a reaction for copper. Dupre (Analyst, ii, 1 ; abst. in
J.C.S., 1877, p. 511) states that copper is found in all vegetables as well
as in animals, but rarely amounts to more than 1 gram per 100,000 (0-001
per cent.). Dieulafait states that 1 gram of ash from all plants growing
on primordial rocks give the copper-reaction, but plants grown on pure
limestone contain but traces of copper, requiring at least 100 grams of ash
for its detection. J. B. Harrison, in a recent report (1906) to the Science
and Agricultural Department of British Guiana, shows its occurrence in
hundredths of 1 per cent, in many igneous rocks of that colony, and Hille-
brand (" Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks," Washington) con-
siders that it can be found almost invariably if looked for in the rock-
analysis carried out by the United States Survey Laboratory, but it is
seldom reported unless extra precautions have been taken to prevent its
entry into the analysis.
The few determinations which have been made of copper in the soil
and grass-ash of the affected country go to show that it exists in amounts
of the order of thousandths of 1 per cent, rather than of hundredths.
I have not been able to consult any of the original papers, owing to
the difficulty in obtaining scientific literature in New Zealand. One is
unable to conjecture how many specimens were analysed to supply the
above data, and whether the figures might be taken as a standard.
Aston. — Chemistry of Bush Sickness. 291
It having been decided to carry on an extensive series of field experi-
ments with a view to ascertain whether top-dressing the pasture with various
ertilizers would in any way mitigate or prevent development of the sick-
ness, the following substances recommended by me were applied as top-
dressings to different paddocks on which the animals were subsequently
grazed : Basic slag, superphosphate of lime, rock phosphate, ferrous sulphate,
caustic lime, carbonate of lime, nitrate of calcium, potassium - sulphate,
blood and bone manure, agricultural salt. Both cattle and sheep were used
in these experiments. Kock-salt has been given in most cases freely as a
lick. On some experiments water has been given to sheep, and on other
experiments no water was given. To cattle water was usually given.
The results of these experiments, which were conducted under
veterinary supervision, will be published in due course. One interesting-
feature may be mentioned. The sheep which died of "' bush sickness "
on these experimental plots provided with a plentiful supply of salt
developed abnormally fatty livers, as the analysis shows. The liver
was mainly fat and water. This occurred when the sheep were supplied
with water, as at Mamaku, and without, as at Te Pu. It will be
noted that the time the sheep were enabled to live on the affected
pasture was unusually long.
The writer desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. Reakes,
Director of the Live-stock Department, for affording information and
every facility for carrying on the work, and to Dr. Maclaurin, Dominion
Anaiyst, for permission to visit frequently the affected district. Messrs.
Clayton, Lyons, Reid, and Kerrigan, Veterinary Officers of the Depart-
ment, have proved of great help ; Professors Gilruth (Melbourne),
Marshall (Dundee), and Malcolm (Dunedin), have provided many refer-
ences and much valuable advice. Mr. R. Alexander, with his practical
knowledge in the field, and Messrs. John Chilwell, F.I.C., and Theodore
Rigg, M.Sc, in the laboratory have also rendered valuable assistance.
Experimental.
In the analysis of animal specimens for copper the method recom-
mended by Raoult and Breton (Compt. Rend., 85, 40-42 ; abst. in
J.C.S., 32, 1877) was used. The substance (about 100 grams wet or
30 grams dry) is heated in a porcelain dish with sulphuric acid untilfthe
mass is carbonized. The charred mass is heated to redness in a muffle
furnace, and in great part burnt in a good current of air. When the com-
bustion becomes difficult in consequence of the fusion of phosphates
(chiefly phosphate of iron in the liver specimens) it is exhausted with a
small quantity of nitric acid and water. The filtered residue is again
incinerated, and the operation repeated until a pure ash is obtained, which
is exhausted with more nitric acid. The acid filtrates are evaporated
and the nitric acid expelled by evaporating to dryness and taking up with
hydrochloric acid. The diluted solution of the ash is now subjected to a
current of sulphuretted hydrogen until the copper-sulphide separates out
well. This is filtered and incinerated. The ignited residue is redissolved
and filtered from any impurity (silica). The solution is made up to a
known volume, and an aliquot part taken for colorimetric estimation of
the copper by the well-known ferro-cyanide method. The result is always
checked by a gravimetric determination made on another aliquot portion.
The results agree very closely. I can indorse Raoult and Breton's warning
as to the necessity of pushing the incineration till an ash free from carbon
remains. Carbon appears to retain the copper with great tenacity.
10*
292
Transactions.
Table 1.
Analysis of Ash of Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), in Flower.
Watt's
Dictionary,
With
Ripe Seed,
Meadow
Grass,
M221-2.
Grass from
Hay from
vol. 2,
Watt's
Watt's
disease
Country.
Te Puke.
p. 943.
Dictionary.
Dictionary.
Potassic oxide (K20)
29-52
3306
2213
1501
16-45
Calcic oxide (CaO)
5-82
8-14
913
5-25
8-90
Magnesic oxide (MgO) . .
2-22
3-47
2-49
3-36
407
Ferric oxide (Fe203)
0-59
0-23
0-62
093
0-72
Sulphuric anhydride (S03)
3-52
3-96
4-23
344
2-45
Silicic oxide (Si02)
2665
3218
3411
42-86
36-92
Carbon-dioxide (C02)
209
2-88
115
293
6-57
Phosphoric anhydride (P205)
8-60
6-41
5-56
383
3-79
Potassic chloride (KC1) . .
17-86
4-87
17-40
1104
1619
Sodic chloride (NaCl) . .
309
4-76
3 14
410
4-07
Manganese-oxide (Mn304)
. .
. .
. .
0-97
. .
Carbon and undetermined
5-90
. .
Alumina
* *
0-38
99-96
99-96
99-96
10000
10013
Ash in 100 parts fresh substance . .
1-59
2-61
,, dry substance . .
531
5-51
Sulphur in 100 parts dry substance
2-37
2-48
Ash of grass dried at 100° C.
•
8-47
Table 2.
Analyses of Healthy and Unhealthy Bloods.
Healthy
Unhealthy
F504
Carotid Artery
Carotid Artery
rpH ii pftH hk
of Steer,
of Steer,
■ ■'■'•' CIO
7-43 : 4-2.
Waiwetu, G9.
F504.
Ash-
Total ash
4-20
743
. .
Insoluble in water
1200
12-71
. .
Soluble
8800
87-29
. .
Silica
1 06
2-77
1-55
Sodic chloride
5207
58-35
32-68
Phosphoric anhydride .
4-75
305
1 71
Calcic oxide . .
101
1-68
0-94
Magnesic oxide
0-49
0-82
046
Ferric oxide . .
7-64
3-80
2 12
Sulphuric anhydride
6 13
6-90
3-86
Potassic oxide
6-55
3 99
223
Sodic oxide . .
11 49
11-25
6-28
Carbon-dioxide
8-81
739
4-24
Percentage of ash constituents in the dried
blood —
Silica
0044
0-205
0 115
Sodic chloride
2168
4322
2-416
Phosphoric anhydride .
0-200
0-220
0123
Calcic oxide . .
' 0042
0124
0065
Magnesic oxide
0020
0060
0034
Ferric oxide . .
0318
0-281
0157
Sulphuric anhydride
0-255
0510
0-280
Potassic oxide
0-283
0-298
0167
Sodic oxide . .
0-478
0-833
0-467
Aston. — Chemistry of Bush Sickness.
293
,3
£
Liver very fatty. Killed.
Killed, 27/7/10, when recovering on
clean country.
Killed, 25/7/10.
70 per cent, water in liver.
Killed, July, 1911.
Liver very fatty. Killed, 25/7/11.
Liver not fatty.
Brain fatty.
72-7 per cent, water in livtr.
0-84 per cent, calculated on ash.
72-3 per cent, water in liver.
7<r8 per cent, water in liver.
81-06 per cent, water in faeces.
85-00 per cent, water in faeces.
74-2 per cent, water in liver, and
0-5 per cent. fat.
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Cattle Specimens.
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Transactions.
. Died
amaku,
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298
Transactions.
Table 6.
Soils fully analysed.
LU21.
L1122.
L1123.
Organic matter and combined water
18-89
16-15
12-90
Silica (Si02)
54-81
62-39
64-02
Phosphoric anhydride (P205)
0-19
0-10
0-09
Calcium-oxide (CaO)
0-25
0-24
0-19
Magnesium-oxide (MgO)
0-15
0-09
0-09
Potassium-oxide (K20)
1-42
1-55
1-50
Sodium-oxide (Na20)
2-88
3-01
3-52
Manganese-oxide (Mn304)
0-60
0-42
0-38
Iron and aluminium oxides
20-81
16-05
17-31
100-00
100-00
100-00
Note. — Analyses made on the samples dried at 100° C. No. LI 121 is from open
fern country; Nos. L1122 and L1123 are from affected forest country which has been
cleared.
References.
Ross, D. 4th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1896, p. 3.
Park, A., M.R.C.V.S. 5th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1897, p. 68.
Gilruth, J. A., M.R.C.V.S. 6th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1898, p. 70.
Park, A., M.R.C.V.S. 6th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1898, p. 88.
Gilruth, J. A., M.R.C.V.S. 8th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1900, p. 186.
9th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1901, p. 66.
Aston, B. C. 14th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture, 1906, p. 106.
Reakes, C. J., D.Sc. 18th Annual Report, Department of Agriculture,
1910, p. 33.
Department of Agriculture Journal, vol. 1, No. 6, p. 457, 15th November.
1910.
Aston, B. C. Department of Agriculture Journal, vol. 3, No. 5, p. 394,
15th November, 1911.
Fathers. — Composition of Nitric Acid.
299
Art. XXXI. — Note on the Composition of Nitric Acid.
By H. T. M. Fathers.
Communicated by Professor Easterfield.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.]
Though the composition and molecular weight of nitric acid are known
to be represented by the formula HN03, I have been unable to find in
any text-book a method of showing to a class that the substance really
has the formula assigned to it. I have therefore worked out the details
of a comparatively simple method whereby the demonstration may without
difficulty be carried out.
1. Strong nitric acid is prepared by distilling a mixture of sodium-
nitrate with an excess of 98 per cent, sulphuric acid at as low a temperature
as possible, and the resulting acid is further dehydrated by distilling at
about 20 mm. pressure (vacuum of the water-ejector pump) with three
times its volume of strong sulphuric acid, and condensation of the acid-
vapours by means of a good freezing-mixture. Diffusion of the aqueous
vapour from the pump into the distillate is prevented by means of a tube
containing pumice moistened with sulphuric acid. An acid prepared in
this way will be found to be practically colourless, and to have a specific
gravity and titration value corresponding to over 99 per cent, of pure
nitric acid.
2. As soon as the acid is prepared a number of thin-walled glass bulbs,
each capable of holding about 0-2 grams of acid, and blown on capillary
stems about 3 cm. in length, are filled with the acid by placing the bulbs
with the open end of the stem downwards in a beaker containing the
acid and placing the beaker in a desiccator, which is then evacuated with
the aid of the filter pump. Upon readmitting the air the bulbs will be
found to be completely filled with acid, except for the presence of a very
minute air-bubble. The ends of the capillaries are now sealed over a small
flame, and the weight of the contained acid ascertained.
3. The apparatus in which the analysis of the acid is actually carried
out is as follows : —
dry; CO 7. _f '
IjUJ
flisaU tube in which one of the bulbs containing a weighed quantity
of nitric acid is placed. & is a short and narrow piece of combustion tubing
containing a 10 cm. spiral of copper gauze which has been heated to redness
300 Transactions,
in situ in a current of air and subsequently reduced and allowed to cool in
a stream of dry hydrogen ; after this treatment the hydrogen has been
displaced by dry air, and the tube and its contents weighed, c is a weighed
calcium-chloride tube, d is a Schiff's nitrometer containing strong potash,
with a mercury trap below.
4. The tubes a, b, c, and d having been arranged in position as shown,
the air is displaced from the apparatus by a current of dry carbon-dioxide,
conveniently prepared by heating sodium-bicarbonate in a test-tube and
passing the gas over pumice moistened with sulphuric acid. When all the
air is displaced the copper in b is heated to redness by a group of three
or four Bunsen burners, the current of gas being at the same time slackened.
The U tube a is now surrounded with hot water, which causes the con-
tained bulb to burst, owing to the high coefficient of expansion of the
nitric acid. The stream of carbon-dioxide carries the vapour of nitric
acid over the red-hot copper, where it is decomposed according to the
equation —
2HNO:! + 5Cu = 5CuO + H20 + N2.
When no further increase in the volume of gas in d is observed, the nitro-
meter is disconnected and the rest of the apparatus allowed to cool in the
current of carbon-dioxide. The carbon -dioxide is then displaced from b
and c by a stream of dry air, and the increase in the weight of these tubes
taken. The composition is then at once arrived at, for
Hydrogen = i of the increase in weight of c.
Oxvgen = ^ of the increase in weight of c + the increase in weight
of b.
Nitrogen = Number of c.c. of gas in d (corrected) x 0-00125 gm.
The ratio of the number of atoms is then obtained in the usual wav by
dividing the weight of each of the elements by the atomic weight of the
same element respectively. Two experiments carried out on separate
preparations of nitric acid by the above method gave —
(1) H : N : 0 = 1-02 : 1-00 : 2-92,
(2) = 1-00 : 1-00 : 2-97,
which are sufficiently near to the required ratio 1:1:3. The time taken
from the commencement of passing the carbon-dioxide to the disconnecting
of the nitrometer need not exceed half an hour, so that with a little fore-
sight the analysis can be conveniently carried out in a lecture of an hour's.
duration.
Since the density of the vapour of nitric acid diluted with air has been
shown .to correspond approximately to that required for the formula
HN03,* all the facts required by the student in the establishment of the
formula are thus available.
* Playfair and Wanklyn, " Journal of the Chemical Society," vol. 15, p. 142.
Easterfield and Taylor. — Hie/her Fatty Acids. 301
Art. XXXII. — The Interaction of Iron with the Higher Fatty Acids.
By Thomas H. Easterfield and Clara Millicent Taylor, M.A. (New
Zealand Government Research Scholar).
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th August, 1911.]
Introduction.
In a former papei* it was shown that under the action of metallic iron
abietic acid is rapidly deprived of its carboxyl group with production of
a hydrocarbon. It is well known that the higher fatty acids under con-
ditions which should lead to deprivation of a carboxyl group yield ketones
more easily than hydrocarbons, according to the equation
2X • C02H = X2CO + C02 + H20.
It therefore seemed probable that heating the higher fatty acids with iron
filings would be a simple method for obtaining ketones in good yield.
Upon heating stearic acid with cast-iron turnings to a temperature
of 360-365° C. it was found that over 80 per cent, of the acid was con-
verted to stearone. As the usual method of preparing the ketone of stearic
acid only gives about 50 per cent, of the theoretical yield, the advantage
of the new process is obvious. Another and equally important point is
that the quantity of acid which can be treated in one operation is almost
unlimited. In the ordinary process of distilling calcium or barium stearate
with slaked lime under diminished pressure from a combustion-tube the
quantity of ketone prepared in each operation is necessarily small.
The method was also found to give good yields of ketone with lauric,
palmitic, cerotic, montanic, and melissic acids, so that it may be regarded
as a general method for the preparation of the ketones of the saturated
fatty acids with from 12 to 30 atoms of carbon in the molecule. With
acetic, butyric, phenyl-acetic, suberic, and sebacic acids no satisfactory
results were obtained.
The ketones of the higher unsaturated fatty acids have not hitherto
been prepared, but the " iron " method allows these compounds to be
obtained without difficulty in the oleic series. In the linoleic series no
experiments have been made, owing to the difficulty of obtaining the acids
in a state of purity. During the progress of these experiments it was
pointed out by Mailhef that the vapours of the fatty acids from acetic
to stearic acid yield ketones if passed over gently heated " reduced "
metals, including iron, copper, nickel, cadmium, and lead. There is,
however, an extraordinary difference between the catalytic action of the
" reduced " metals (which are in general pyrophoric) and the same metals
in the state of powder. (Compare, for example, the inertness of ordinary
platinum with the intense catalytic action of platinum-black). Sabatier
has, indeed, recently drawn attentionj to the fact that " reduced " nickel
exhibits quite different catalytic effects upon mixtures of hydrogen and
acetylene, according to the conditions under which the reduction has be3n
carried out.
* Easterfield and Bagley, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 35 (1902), p. 480.
f Bulletin de la Soc. chimique de Paris, 1909, p. 616.
j Berich'te d. deutschen chem. Gesellschaft, 1911, p. 1996
302 Transactions.
Experimental.
1. Preparation of Slearone. — Pure stearic acid is heated with one-tenth
of its weight of powdered cast-iron turnings to a temperature of 280° C.
The temperature is then slowly raised to 360°, and maintained between
360° and 370° until evolution of carbon-dioxide almost ceases — usually
about two hours. The product is freed from iron by means of hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid, and from stearic acid by aqueous alkali. The ketone is
twice crystallized from light peti oleum with the addition of animal char-
coal, and is then pure. The yield is 80-85 per cent, of that required by
theory. The melting-point was found to be 88°, as stated by Krafft. An
analysis gave —
Found.
Calculated.
C = 82-71
83-00
H = 1401
13-87
2. Preparation of Dihepta-decyl Carbinol. — 1 gram of stearone was dis-
solved in 200 c.c. of amyl alcobol, and reduced by the slow addition of
8 grams of sodium to the boiling solution. The secondary alcohol crystal-
lized out on cooling, and after several recrystallizations melted constantly
at 89-5°.
Found. Calculated.
C = 82-31 82-66
H = 1403 14-19
The carbinol yielded an acetic ester melting at 61° (not sharply) and
giving on analysis—
Found.
Calculated,
C = 80-80
80-73
H = 13-51
13-46
3. Preparation of Oleone. — 5 grams of pure oleic acid prepared from
olive-oil, and melting at 14° C, was rapidly heated with one-tenth of its
weight of cast-iron powder to 240°, and then more slowly to 340° and
maintained at this temperature for two hours. The product was treated
first with acid, then with alkali, afterwards crystallized from alcohol, and
finally from acetic acid, until the melting-point was constant at 59-60°.
The yield was 10 per cent, of the weight of the oleic acid taken.
The same yield of oleone of the same melting-point was obtained in
an experiment in which carefully rectified oleic acid prepared from com-
mercial olein was employed.
A smaller yield of oleone of the same melting-point was obtained by
distilling pure barium oleate in a partial vacuum to a temperature which
finally reached 450°. The distillate was rectified under reduced pressure,
and the portion boiling at 280-330° at 5-10 mm. pressure deposited oleone
on cooling. After several crystallizations the substance melted at 59°.
The yield was only 2 per cent, of the theoretical amount. Analysis 1 was
carried out on oleone obtained by the iron method, analysis 2 with
oleone from barium oleate : —
1. 2. Calculated.
C = 83-5 83-40 83-62
H = 13-6 1310 13-14
The molecular weight by the ebullioscopic method in alcoholic solution
gaVG~ M = 492 and 508. Calculated = 502.
Bromine absorption in twelve hours = 62-1. Calculated for 4 atoms,
bromine = 63-8
Easterfield and Taylor. — Higher Fatty Acids. 303
4. Isolation of Oleone from Commercial Olein. — P. W. Robertson* showed
that stearone is present in the last runnings from the iron stearine stills,
and it appeared probable that oleone would also be present in the olein
pressed from commercial stearine. This was found to be the case. Com-
mercial olein was freed from solid matter by filtering at 10-12° and
then submitted to fractional distillation at 40 mm. pressure, an efficient
dephlegmating column being employed. From that portion which did
not distil below a temperature of 300° solid matter was separated by
dissolving in alcohol and adding a faint excess of alkali. The solid matter
was proved by its melting-point (59°) and microscopic appearance to be
oleone, which, though easily soluble in an alcoholic solution of oleic acid,
is very sparingly soluble in an alcoholic solution of sodium oleate.
5. Oleone Oxime. — This compound is easily soluble in alcohol, and
melts at 31°.
Found. Calculated.
N = 2-73 2-70
6. Reduction of Oleone by Hydriodic Acid. — When oleone is treated
with phosphorus pentachloride and subsequently reduced by hydriodic
acid and phosphorus at 240° n.-pentatriacontane (C35H72) results. The
substance melted at 72-73° (KrafTt gives 74°).
Found. Calculated.
C = 85-8 85-3
H = 14-8 14-6
7. Preparation of Elaidone and Brassidone. — These ketones were pre-
pared from elaidic and brassidic acids, under conditions similar to those
described for the preparation of oleone from oleic acid, with the aid of
metallic iron. The yield of elaidone was 15 per cent., that of brassidone
50 per cent., of the theoretical quantity.
Elaidone melts at 70°, its oxime at 32°.
Analysis of elaidone : —
Found. Calculated.
C = 83-33 83-62
H = 13-27 13-14
Analysis of elaidone oxime : —
Found. Calculated.
N = 2-9 2-7
Brassidone melts at 80°, its oxime at 51°.
Brassidone : —
Found. Calculated.
C = 83-49 84-03
H = 13-32 13-35
Brassidone oxime : —
Found. Calculated.
N = 2-1 N = 2-2
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37 (1905), p. 577.
304 Transactions.
Art. XXXIII. — Nephelinite Rocks in New Zealand.
By Professor P. Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S., Otago University.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 7th November, 1911.]
It was not until 1891 that the mineral nepheline was recognized in any
New Zealand rocks. In that year it was recorded by Ulrich (3) as occur-
ring in a considerable number of rocks in the Dunedin volcanic region.
Statements had previously been made by Park and Hill that some of
the rocks on the south slopes of Ruapehu were phonolites. It has,
however, since been found that these statements were erroneous, and so
far as known all the rocks of Ruapehu are hypersthene-andesites.
Though Ulrich described many types of nepheline-bearing rocks from
the Dunedin district, he by no means exhausted the locality. Other
types have since been described by Marshall, Boult, and Cotton ; but
there is still much room for research. Within the last few months
Mr. J. P. Smith has added greatly to our knowledge in bringing to light
the occurrence of interesting types of nephelinite, a rock that had not
previously been recorded from this neighbourhood. Among the speci-
mens deposited in the Otago Museum by Captain Hutton previous to
1879 was a rock with the label, " Dolerite, Lake Waihola." When this
rock was examined microscopically it was at once seen to be a nephe-
linite. Search for an outcrop of it on the east side of the lake was,
however, unsuccessful ; and Andrew's account of the basalt on the
south of the lake did not suggest that it occurred there. For some
time no opportunity presented itself for an examination of the western
shore of the lake. Recently, however, Mr. Smith was able to visit the
western side, and he at once found a large outcrop of various types of
this rock, which we were afterwards able to visit in company, through
the courtesy of Mr. W. Adam, on whose property the outcrop is situated.
Subsequently it was found that all the basaltoid rocks south of this lake
are related to the nephelinitoid type. A distinct dyke of a rock of inter-
mediate coarseness occurs at Clarendon, five miles south-west of Waihola.
Later Mr. Smith found a still more interesting type of nephelinite
at Omimi, on the sea-coast, thirty-three miles north-east of the previous
locality, but still in the same volcanic district. Here the actual limits of the
doleritic form of the rock are not well defined, but, as at Waihola, the
doleritic type is associated with a basaltoid development, which contains a
large amount of allotriomorphic nepheline, and varies between nepheline-
basanite and nepheline-basalt.
Another New Zealand locality for this type of nephelinite is in the
Auckland Domain. Here there is no exposure of the rock in the solid,
for all the specimens that have been obtained were derived from boulders
ejected during the explosive eruptions of the volcano of which the cricket-
ground now occupies the crater. This rock has been known for some
time, but the only description hitherto published of it is in a general
paper by Marshall (8). No analyses of any of these rocks have hitherto
been published.
The occurrence of these rocks on the western side of the Waihola
Lake is of special interest. Here the rock is extremely coarse over
part of the outcrop (analysis A), and it has a structure that is appa-
rently granitoid in hand-specimens. Apatite was the first mineral to
Marshall. — Nephelinite Rocks in New Zealand.
305
form in it. The prisms are of considerable size, as much as 1 mm. long
and 0-18 mm. in diameter. The prisms are not numerous in the olivine
or ilmenite, but are abundant in the younger constituents. Ilmenite in
ca schists, Maitai I
ystem (Trias Jura). I
~^x[Oamaru system.
Eocene-miocene.
a d. i Glacial moraine
' Pleistocene.
Nephelinite.
Scale : 1 inch = 8 miles.
CLARENDONk"^ -
_s Cxv
WC<^
v^->vv
•v>
mrawmnw**,*
Geological Structure of Part of East Otago.
grains of T5mm. in diameter is rather frequent, and displays its usual
structure. Olivine is fairly common in crystals as much as 6 mm. in
diameter, and is somewhat serpentinized. The augite is a titaniferous
306 Transactions.
variety, with pronounced zonal and hour-glass structure, and with the
usual pleochroism, and occasionally shows the steel-blue birefringence
due to the high dispersion of the optic axes. A narrow margin is
usually dark green. The mineral is completely idiomorphic. The nephe-
line is abundant, For the most part its crystallization was finished
before that of the feldspar. It is largely altered to natrolite. The feld-
spar is much twinned on the albite and pericline laws, and has in
many places the appearance of microline. The extinction-angle, however,
proves it to be andesine. It was the last of the larger crystals to
form. There is here and there a small quantity of groundmass. It
consists of idiomorphic and often bent crystals of feldspar, probably
andesine, ailotriomorphic aegerine, nepheline converted into natrolite, and
much apatite. Of these minerals, the nepheline was the last to form.
In some of the finer-grained specimens the idiomorphism of the augite is
less pronounced, and occasionally shows ophitic structure with the feld-
spar, which is then distinctly anterior in crystallization to the nepheline.
The basaltoid forms of the rock are well exemplified by a large dyke
at Clarendon (analysis B). Here apatite is much less noticeable. The
ilmenite and olivine are not more than 025 mm. in diameter. The
augite is in moderate to small crystals, sinking to the dimensions of
miciolites, but always idiomorphic. Feldspar is not abundant, and is
always in the form of microlites. Nepheline is quite abundant, and is
in the form of ailotriomorphic plates enclosing numerous crystals of olivine,
augite, and ilmenite. Lava-flows that cover a considerable area of the
country to the west of the dyke are also somewhat similar, but are of
much finer grain (analysis C). The irregular plates of nepheline are in
these rocks extremely small and hard to distinguish except by micro-
chemical methods. This type of rock has previously been described by
Andrew, who, however, failed to distinguish the nepheline, though he
recognized that much of the rock was soluble in dilute HC1.
The type from Omimi is particularly interesting from the point of
view of structure (analysis D). The apatite and ilmenite have the same
features as before. The olivine, however, is in extremely small needles,
sometimes 1 cm. long, but only 0-08 mm. wide. The direction of neigh-
bouring crystals is in remarkably parallel lines in longitudinal as well as
transverse section. They are similarly oriented over a considerable area.
The phenocrysts of augite have pleochroism, zonal and hour-glass structure,
as in the Waihola type. A similar appearance of lattice structure in the
feldspar is also very noticeable. The nepheline is wanting in crystallo-
graphic boundaries, and is usually intergrown in complete micrographic
fashion with augite. In some instances at least this augite is in optical
continuity with the large crystals. This micrographic intergrowth is
sometimes found in the groundmass in an extremely minute scale, and
constitutes its dominant feature. The augite is sometimes slightly green
in its smaller members. There are minute crystals of feldspar and apatite
crystals in the groundmass. The intergrowth is of the same nature as
that found in the Lobauer Berg type, but is much more complete, and
is shown on a finer scale than in the German type.
As at Waihola, the rock is associated with basaltoid types, the exact
distribution of which and their relation to the coarser type of rock has
not yet been fully made out by Mr. Smith. Here, however, there appears
to be a complete series through types with large ailotriomorphic nephe-
line plates to types of a dense nature in which the nepheline is extremely
hard to identify.
Marshall. — Nephelinite Socks in New Zealand .
307
The Auckland type is somewhat similar to that of Omimi (analysis D).
In most specimens the large augites have an ophitic structure. The
olivine crystals, again, have a great length, 1-5 cm. by 0-46 mm., and again
the direction of elongation is that of the axis a. The intergrowth of
augite and nepheline is very complete, but is not carried to the extent of
excessive fineness that is found in the Omimi type. The groundmass is
rather more plentiful, and contains aegerine, apatite, and feldspar.
This rock is associated with basaltoid lavas which contain very little
nepheline. The numerous volcanic cones near Auckland are formed of
this dense type of basanite. The Auckland rocks have been mentioned
previously (Marshall, 8).
Chemically, as would be expected, all the rocks mentioned are closely
related, as is clearly shows by the following analyses : —
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
Si02
3600
41 04
4219
45-30
46-60
43 60
TiOo
2-50
237
0-87
0-71
1-76
1 37
A1?0,
1451
11-78
1800
16-44
16-79
9-87
Fe,Oa
719
6-86
7-73
1-82
3-87
7-43
FeO
10-28
9-52
8-67
8-82
7-58
5-40
CaO
12-95
1050
9-27
7-85
7-85
14-26
MgO
402
5-38
706
2-73
2-88
7-18
K90
3 04
2-38
105
405
331
3-81
Na,0
361
4-36
3 15
8-60
518
1-74
p2o5
. . .
1-56
1-23
. .
1-68
1-76
1-85
Loss on ignition
4-40
400
1 35
296
304
101
Total
.
10008
99-42
99-34
100-96
100-62
100-22
A. Coarse nephelinite, Lake Waihola.
B. Fine nephelinite, Clarendon.
C. Finest type of nephelinite, Clarendon. Andrew, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 38 (1906), p. 461.
D. Nephelinite with micrographic structure, Omimi.
E. Nephelinite with micrographic structure, Auckland.
F. Nephelinite, Regatta Point, Tasmania. Paul, Tscher. Mitt., bd. 25
(1906), p. 301.
Literature.
1. Hutton, F. W. " Geology of Otago," p. 56. Dunedin, 1875.
2. Hutton, F. W. " The Eruptive Rocks of New Zealand." Proc.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 134.
3. Ulrich, G. H. F. ;" On the Occurrence of Nepheline-bearing Rocks
in New Zealand." Trans. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 11 (1907), p. 127.
4. Andrew, A. R. " On the Geology of the Clarendon Phosphate-
deposits, Otago, New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38 (1906), p. 461.
5. Marshall, P. "The Geology of Dunedin, New Zealand." Quart..
Jour. Geol. Soc, vol. 62 (1906), p. 381.
6. Paul, F. P. " Beitrage zur petrographischen Kenntniss einiger
Foyaitisch theralitischer Gesteine aus Tasmania." Tscher. Min. Pet.
Mitt., bd. 25, heft 4 (1906), p. 301.
7. Marshall, P. " Trachydolerites near Dunedin." Trans. Aust. Ass.
Adv. Sci., vol. 10 (1904), p. 183.
8. Marshall, P. " Distribution of the Igneous Rocks of New Zealand."
Trans. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 11 (1907), p. 366.
308 Transactions
Akt. XXXIV. — The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaciation in the
Tararna Ranges, North Island, New Zealand.
By G. L. Adkin.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 6th September, 1911.]
Plates XXII-XXIV.
The discovery of evidence of former glaciation in the Tararua Ranges
was made by the writer in February,. 1909, and two years later (March,
1911) further discoveries were made and the previous ones confirmed.
The glaciated areas and the memorials < f former frost-action so far dis-
covered are situated on the highest ranges of the Tararuas — viz.. on that
part of the Dundas Range lying nearest the geographical centre of the
mountain - system, and on the Mitre-Holdsworth Range. During the
maximum phase of glaciation the heads of five river-valleys were filled
with glacier-ice : (1) Park River,* the main tributary of the Waiohine-iti
River, named after the well-known New Zealand glacialist ; (2) the main
source of the Waiohine-iti River ; (3) Dorset Creek, a left-bank tributary of
the Waiohine-iti River, named after a pioneer explorer of the Tararuas ;
(4) Bennington Creek, a tributary of the Waingawa River, rising in the
south-west foot of the Mitre Peak, named after a companion of Edward
Dorset ; and (5) the Mangaterera River, another tributary of the
Waingawa.
The phenomena resulting from the presence of glaciers now non-existent
consist of — (1) U-shaped valleys ; (2) glacial cirques ; (3) rock basins ;
(4) glacial hanging valleys ; (5) fluviatile hanging valleys.
In order to give a clear and correct impression of the extent and cha-
racter of former glaciation in the Tararuas, the phenomena tabulated will
first be dealt with seriatim, and then the topography of the Park Valley
■ — the locality where these phenomena attained their maximum develop-
ment— will be fully described.
(1.) U-shaped Valleys.
U-shaped valleys furnish the principal evidence of the former presence
of ulacier-ice. So far as is at present known, they occur in five situations.
The head of Park Valley is U-shaped for a distance of two miles ; in the
Waiohine-iti Valley the same feature extends for about one mile ; in the
valleys of Dorset and Bennington Creeks, for about half a mile each ; and
at the head of the Mangaterera Valley, about a quarter of a mile. The
accumulation of scree-material, talus, and alluvium has to a certain extent
obscured the U-shaped form and reduced the original steepness of the
walls of these valleys, but even now their special character is unmistakable.
Below their U-shaped heads the valleys contract to narrow gorges typical
of fluviatile erosion.
* The river draining this valley has hitherto neither been named nor shown on
any available map. On every available map the main source of the Otaki River is
represented as draining the site of the upper portion of Park Valley.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate XXII.
Fig. 1. — General View of the Glaciated Part of Park Valley.
Fig. 2. — The Waiohine-iti Valley.
Showing the glaciated head and the V-shaped lower part. The Waiohine-iti
pinnacle's on left.
Face p. 308.]
Adkin. — Former Glaciation in the Tararua Ranges.
309
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310 Transactions.
(2.) Glacial Cirques.
By far the finest example of a glacial cirque is to be found at the head
of the U-shaped portion of Park Valley. This cirque is nearly half a mile
across, and is bounded by mural precipices of imposing appearance. At
the heads of the other U-shaped valleys the cirques are not so typically
developed, the precipices being inconspicuous or absent.
(3.) Rock Basins.
There is every reason to believe that a rock basin exists in the floor
of the cirque at the head of Park 'Valley. Since the disappearance of the
ice it has been filled in with alluvium, and therefore its existence can only
be demonstrated by evidence supplied by the general topography of the
valley-floor. This evidence will be set forth below (p. 314).
(4.) Glacial Hanging Valleys.
Three glacial hanging valleys open into the cirque at the head of Park
Valley. They lie at heights of from 360 ft. to 510 ft. above the surface
of the alluvial flat forming the present floor of the cirque. The largest
has a length of about 15 chains, and the other two, which lie close together
and are only divided by a low rocky ridge, are about 6 chains and 8 chains
in length respectively. The lips of all three glacial hanging valleys have
been cut by the streams that have drained the latter since the disappear-
ance of the ice.
The floors of the glacial hanging valleys of Park Valley, and particularly
that of the largest — and the evidence is therefore the more conclusive —
show some signs of downward curving at the points where these valleys
terminate and open into the main cirque. For this reason it is clear that
the ice in the U-shaped hanging valleys must have descended to the head
of the main glacier as icefalls ; the upper surface of the ice in the main
cirque — i.e., the head of the trunk glacier — must therefore have stood
somewhat below the level of the floors of the U-shaped hanging valleys,
and probably attained a thickness of 500 ft. If the surface of the ice
forming the head of the trunk glacier had stood above the level of, or even
on a level with, the floors of the U-shaped hanging valleys, the terminal
downward curving of their floors would have been absent, and the tribu-
tary glaciers would have joined the main one at grade. This they may
have done during the maximum phase of glaciation, the icefalls and the
wearing of the lips of the glacial hanging valleys by them being referable
to a later date.
Glacial (U-shaped) hanging valleys occur at the heads of some of the
other glaciated valleys also. There is a tiny one at the head of the valley
of Bennington Creek. The cleft cut in its lip is in its incipient stages, so
that small waterfalls still descend into the main valley. The precipices
of the Mitre Peak surmount the north-east side of this hanging valley,
and its head lies in the side of the main watershed of the Mitre-Holdsworth
Range.
Another small glacial hanging valley is situated at the head of the
glaciated portion of the Mangaterera Valley. Its lip also has been cut by
the small stream which now drains it.
Adkin. — Former Glaciation in the Tararua Eang.es.
311
"Mmnntmiiili
312 Transactions.
(5.) Fluviatile Hanging Valleys.
Hanging valleys having the typical V-shaped cross-section of stream
erosion, and which owe their present state as such to the former presence
of a glacier, are found in Park Valley only. The best examples are situated
on the left wall of the valley, about three-quarters of a mile below the
main cirque. The height of the falls which descend from their lower
ends into the main valley is now greatly reduced by the infilling of the
latter with scree-material. In the glaciated part of Park Valley the fluvia-
tile hanging valleys are the sole remaining relics of its pre-glacial form —
a form due entirely to fluviatile erosion. Prior to the glacial period the
portion of Park Valley referred to was very much narrower, and also rather
less deeply excavated than it is at the present time. From the ridges
forming the watersheds on either side of the valley steep lateral spurs ran
down to the valley-bottom, and the intervening gullies were in topographic
adjustment with the trunk valley.
With the advent of the ice the pre-glacial topography of the upper
portion of Park Valley was modified in two ways — the valley was both
deepened and widened. The deepening was relatively greater in some
parts of the valley than in others ; in the main cirque the valley was over-
deepened and the gradient of its floor reversed. Throughout the glaciated
part of the valley the deepening was sufficient to remove all traces of the
V-shaped contour of the pre-glacial trench, and to give the valley the
typical flat bottom of glacier erosion. The widening of Park Valley by
ice-action was of even greater extent and importance. In the achievement
of this result the lateral spurs were deeply truncated, the intervening
gullies betrunked and converted into hanging valleys, and the sides of the
main valley cut back to such an extent as to give them a steep wall-like
character. The present fluviatile hanging valleys were never ice-filled,
but at the time of maximum refrigeration the tributary gullies nearer the
head of the main valley were filled with ice, and were moulded thereby
into their present U-shaped form. These TJ-shaped hanging valleys owe
their present state as such more to the rapid erosion of the main cirque
by the process known as " plucking " than to the lateral grinding which
produced the fluviatile hanging valleys.
The Topography of Park Valley.
(See map, p. 311, and Plates XX1I-XX1V.)
The topography of the upper portion of Park Valley is undoubtedly
of glacial origin. The valley contains the most extensive and the best-
preserved memorials of the erosion of glacier-ice, and therefore it has the
distinction of being the former site of the largest of the extinct glaciers
of the Tararua Ranges. The general trend of the glaciated part of the
valley is west by south, but it is not straight ; it runs in two curves — the
upper bending southward, the lower northward. From the lower limits
of glacial erosion the valley turns south-south-west and south-east to its
junction with the Waiohine-iti River. This part of Park Valley is narrow
and gorged. Lofty ridges form the boundaries of Park Valley, and the
highest points of these — Mounts Thompson, Lancaster, and Dora, and
Arete Peak — encircle its head, and in the past formed the gathering-ground
oi the perennial snowfields which fed the old glacier.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV.
Plate XXIII.
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Plate XXIV.
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Adkin. — Former Glaciation in the Tararua Uanges.
313
The main cirque at the head of the valley has a diameter of nearly half
a mile. The precipices forming the bounding walls of the cirque attained
a maximum height of 800 ft. above its floor. Below the cirque the valley
is U-shaped for about two miles, the sheer lateral walls having a height
of upwards of 400 ft. The U shape of the valley is less pronounced towards
its lower end, and two miles below the cirque the latter narrows, gradu-
ally becomes V-shaped, and finally gorged. The continuity of the bounding
precipices of the main cirque — which are best preserved on the south-west
face of Arete Peak — is broken by the three U-shaped glacial hanging valleys.
The largest of these lies on the south side of Arete Peak, and rises in a
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Diagrammatic Sections of the Glaciated Portion of Pa^k Valley.
(1.) Cross-section and diagram of main cirque. (2.) Enlarged view of cirque,
showing glacial hanging valleys. (3.) Longitudinal section and diagram of
left wall of valley.
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rather poorly developed cirque. It has a length of about 15 chains. The
other two lie between Arete Peak and Mount Dora, and rise in ill-defined
cirques. They are twin valleys, being separated only by a low rounded
ridge. Their length is about 6 chains and 8 chains respectively. A small
narrow gorge has been cut in the lip of each of these glacial hanging valleys
by the streams which now drain them.
314 Transactions.
The most striking feature of the main U-shaped valley is the high
development of screes. These bury the precipitous walls to a height of
from 250 ft. to 320 ft. above the valley-floor. Above the screes the lateral
walls rise to a height of from 50 ft. to 100 ft. In the main cirque the pre-
cipices rise 290 ft. above the apexes of the screes. Throughout the greater
pajt of its length the floor of the main valley is loaded with scree-material ;
the bases of the screes on the one wall meet the bases of those on the other,
and the modern drainage- channel of the valley follows the line of contact.
The screes are now not in the course of formation, being clothed with
tussock-grass and subalpine scrub.
In the U-shaped section of its valley the Park River is actively engaged
in altering the gradient of the valley-floor. In the main cirque it is an
aggrading stream, and has there formed an alluvial flat several acres in
extent. Below this flat the river flows in a narrow channel of gradually
increasing depth. Near the lower limit of glaciation this channel is about
20 ft. deep, and the rock floor of the valley, upon which the screes rest, has
been incised by the river to a depth varying from 10 ft. to 15 ft.
The infilling at the head of the valley, and the excavation below, clearly
demonstrate that the valley was overdeepened* by the old glacier. After
the disappearance of the ice the rock basin was probably the site of a small
lake until it was filled in by the accumulation of alluvium.
Such criteria of former glaciation as moraines, roche moutonnees, and
striated surfaces have not been found in Park Valley or in any of the other
glaciated areas of the Tararuas. It is highly probable that some of the
phenomena enumerated do exist, but in Park Valley, and in the other
glaciated localities also, the present excessive accumulation of scree-material
and alluvium precludes all possibility of their detection. The apparent
absence of a terminal moraine may be accounted for by the small size of
the glacier. It may be, however, that some of the angular debris resting
on the valley-floor near the lower limit of glaciation is morainic material
laid down during the slow but regular shrinking of the glacier during its
final retreat. Another suggestion is that the great piles of boulders that
encumber the narrow gorges situated immediately below the lower limits
of glaciation in Park Valley are the re-sorted relics of a terminal moraine.
According to this supposition, the terminal moraine of the old glacier was
demolished and carried to lower levels since the disappearance of the ice
by the periodic floods of the modern river. In this way the angular blocks
forming part of the moraine were rounded and transformed into the
boulders as they now exist. The boulders in the gorges referred to are
very much larger and more numerous than any that lie within the
glaciated upper portion of the valley.
The following altitudes in Park Valley were determined by the use of
an aneroid set by the trig, on Mount Dundas : The saddle in the watershed
of the Dundas Range at the head of the largest glacial hanging valley,
4,440 ft. above sea-level ; the lip of the largest glacial hanging valley,
3,900 ft. ; the lips of the twin glacial hanging valleys, 3,750 ft. ; the centre
of the alluvial flat in the floor of the main cirque, 3,380 ft. ; the summits
of the precipitous rock walls of the main U-shaped valley — left wall
3.800 ft., right wall 3,670 ft.; the lower limit of glaciation (i.e., of the
U-shaped part of the valley), 3,000 ft. above sea-level.
* The glacial hanging valleys furnish additional evidence in favour of this con-
clusion.
Adkin. — Former Glaciation in the Tararua Range* 315
General Conclusions.
The former glaciers of the Tararuas owed their existence to the then
greater elevation of the country and to the more rigorous climatic con-
ditions. At the present time the snow-line in the latitude of the Tararuas
is about 8,000 ft. above sea-level. " The late Sir Julius von Haast, in his
' Geology of Canterbury and Westland,' estimates that during the glacial
period the snow-line was 1,000 ft. lower than it is in New Zealand at the
present time."* This estimate involves only a slight reduction of the
annual temperature — a reduction presumably induced by cosmic or ex-
ternal causes or conditions — and appears to have been based on such, other
factors being neglected. The evidence furnished by the configuration of
the bed of Cook Strait (as shown by soundings) and by the physiography-]
of the lowlands at the western foot of the Tararuas indicates that the ele-
vation of that part of the country has been reduced since the glacial period
by at least 1,000 ft. Taking for granted that these estimates are correct,
and that they represent the sum of the influences that lowered the snow-
line, the snow-line in the Tararuas during the glacial period was, in re-
lation to the present sea-level, 2,000 ft. lower than at the present time ;
in other words, the snow-line of the Tararuas formerly stood at a height
of 6,000 ft. above the present sea-level. But it is evident from the known
altitude and position of the extinct glaciers of the Tararuas that the lower
limits of the permanent snowfields that fed them were at the most 4,000 ft.,
and perhaps only 3,500 ft., above the present sea-level. By taking as
correct even the greater altitude — i.e., 4,000 ft. above the present sea-
level) — there is a discrepancy between it and the foregoing of 2,000 ft.
This lack of agreement between the tentatively adopted and the actual
altitude of the former snow-line may be removed by accepting one
of the following amendments : that during the glacial period the
snow-line was lowered (in each case with reference to the present sea-
level) — (1) by more rigorous climatic conditions 3,000 ft., and by the
greater elevation .of the land 1,000 ft.; (2) by climatic conditions
1,000 ft., and by greater elevation 3,000 ft. ; or (3) by climatic conditions
2,000 ft., and greater elevation also 2,000 ft. The last of these is probably
nearest the truth, since the estimate that the snow-line was lowered by
climatic influences only 1,000 ft., as pointed out by Mr. H. Hill (Trans.
N.Z. Inst. vol. 27, p. 453), " is a very small one, representing, as it does,
only a difference of about 3 degrees of temperature ; and this certainly
would not be sufficient to bring about a glacial climate in the South Island " ;
and, of course, still less so in the North Island, unless it can be shown that
the latter stood at an enormously greater elevation in the early Pleistocene
period.
The former glaciers of the Tararua Ranges give some indication of the
extent and nature of the Pleistocene sflaciation of the North Island : they
show that in these respects it was limited, localized, and moderate. On
comparison this view is found to be in harmony with the known extent
* H. Hill, " On the Hawke's Bay Pleistocene Beds and the Glacial Period," Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 27, 1S95, p. 452.
t G. L. Adkin, " The Post-tertiary Geological History of the Ohau River, &c,"
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, 1911, p. 49fi.
316 Transactions.
of the Pleistocene glacial development in the South Island, a development
which attained its maximum in the Wakatipu ice-cap in Otago, and its
lesser phases in Canterbury and Nelson, where systems of gigantic glaciers
of the alpine type came into existence. In the South Island the Pleistocene
ice-masses decreased from south to north, and, though at that time they
made an appearance in the North Island also, they were there of even less
extent than might have been expected. The northernmost of the centres
of glacier dispersion in the South Island appears to have been situated in
the Hardy Range,* in Collingwood. In that locality the signs of former
ice-action are abundant and well preserved ; yet in the Tararuas — moun-
tains only slightly inferior in altitude, and situated in practically the same
latitude — the relics of the Pleistocene glaciers are meagre, and of a less
definite character. It seems apparent, then, that conditions in the North
Island were not so favourable for the development of glacial phenomena,
and that no widespread glaciation was experienced.
These facts and inferences are quite at variance with the idea, expressed
in a paper on " Some Evidences of Glaciation on the Shores of Cook Strait
and Golden Bay,"f that the bed of Cook Strait during the Pleistocene
elevation was occupied by a great glacier rising in the central highlands
and flowing southward. In a succeeding paper by the same author it is
stated that " a large portion of the Province of Wellington suffered intense
glaciation in that [the Pleistocene] period. "{ In keeping with these views
of the extent of former glaciation of the North Island, Professor Park ex-
pressed the opinion that evidence of ancient ice-action and the products
of such would probably be found, among other places, " in the Wairarapa,
near the Tararuas." The only interpretation which can be placed on this
statement is that the author quoted believed that during the maximum
phase of glaciation the Tararua Ranges supported glaciers which deployed
upon the plains to the eastward. The evidence furnished by the Tararuas
themselves is entirely opposed to such a suggestion. Until some more
definite and conclusive evidence is adduced to support it. the doctrine of
widespread glaciation in the Province of Wellington, and more particularly
of the low-lying maritime areas of the same, is scarcely likely to gain general
acceptance.
* See Bell, Webb, and Clark, Bulletin No. 3 (New Series), N.Z. Geol. Survey,
pp. 31, 32, 1907.
t James Park, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, p. 585.
% James Park, " The Great Ice Age of New Zealand," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42.
1910, p. 599.
• Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 317
Art. XXXV. — The Geology of the Bluff, New Zealand.
By L. J. Wild, M.A.
Communicated by Dr. P. Marshall.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 3rd October, 1911.]
1. Introduction and Description of the Topography of Area.
The generally even surface of the Southland Plain is broken on its
coastal margin by a range of hills extending in a south-easterly direction
from the mouth of the New River Estuary for a distance of seven miles,
and terminating in Bluff Hill. The height varies much from point to
point, but the outstanding feature is Bluff Hill, which attains an elevation
of 860 ft.
Several geologists have visited the locality, or have examined speci-
mens of rock from it, but the area has never been submitted to accurate
and systematic geological examination.
Hutton,* in 1872, referred to the Bluff Hill in describing the
geological structure of the Southland District. He also described the
relative positions of some of the rocks found there, and such of their
characters as can be detected in the field. In his " Geology of Otago,"
published in Dunedin in 1X75, he repeated the conclusions he had
come to.
In 1888 the general structure and physiographical nature of the
district was described at some length by Park,f who also went into the
evidence as to the age of* the rocks; but the writer offered neither
chemical nor microscopical descriptions of the various rock types.
At a later date Huttonj named and described sections of specimens
of rock from Bluff Hill, but subsequently, with more material at hand,
published additional notes, § in which he expressed a change of opinion
with regard to the nomenclature of some of them. It is rather unfor-
tunate that the localities from which these specimens were obtained have
not been recorded more definitely.
Hamilton|| has also contributed to the literature on the subject, and
the locality is also mentioned several times in " The Geology of Otago,"
by Hutton and Ulrich. The references in the latter publication will be
discussed below.
Thomson^ has recently published notes on some rocks which are " the
result of a few hours' collection along the shore south and west from
Bluff Harbour," and "from a small headland about half a mile round
the coast to the south-west just beyond the mouth of the harbour." A
glance at the map will show that " west " must be a misprint for " east."
* Hutton, " Report on the Geology of Southland," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1871-72.
p. 89.
t Park, " On the Geology of Bluff Peninsula," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1887-88.
p. 72.
X Hutton, " Notes on the Eruptive Rocks of Bluff Peninsula," Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 23 (1891), p. 353.
§ Hutton, " Corrections of the Names of some New Zealand Rocks," Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 31 (1899), p. 484.
|| Hamilton, " Notes on the Geology of the Bluff District," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 19
(1887), p. 452.
Tf Thomson, J. A., " Notes on some Rocks from Parapara, Bluff Hill, and Waikawa,"
Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42 (1910), p. 33.
318
Transactions.
The present paper will aim principally at an accurate description of
the rocks that outcrop on the portion of the foreshore of Bluff Harbour
lying between the wharves and Starling Point, together with the related
rocks of Tewaewae Point, since this area exhibits in most striking manner
the different rock types and their mutual arrangement.
The more detailed investigations herein described point to conclusions
somewhat opposed to previously accepted ideas of the geology of the
district.
Position .
The Bluff Range forms the backbone of a prominent peninsula of
the south coast of the South Island of New Zealand, in latitude 46° 32' S.
and longitude 168° 23' E. It extends for seven miles from north-west
to south-east. It is united to the mainland by a narrow strip which
projects to the east from the flank of the range at its north-western end,
Fig. 1. — Map of the Bluff District.
and separates the waters of Bluff Harbour on the south from the Moko-
moko Inlet on the north. At its north-western extremity the range
terminates in somewhat abrupt cliffs impinged on by the New River,
the mouth of which has been driven east by the sands of the Riverton
Beach, which are constantly travelling in this direction under the
influence of the seas and currents caused by the prevailing westerly
winds.
Origin of the Land- forms.
The range consists of a mass of igneous rock which was originally a
deep-seated intrusion. Subsequent denudation acting more readily on
the intruded than on the intrusive rocks has exposed the intrusive mass
as a range of hills. The area of contact, which is fully described in
the following pages, is thus a metamorphic aureole. The resulting meta-
morphic rocks outcrop in places as the base of the range on the north-east
side, the most extensive outcrop being on the foreshore of the harbour
from Henderson Street for a distance of 37 chains towards Starling
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff.
319
Point. A study of the rocks in this locality, together with those of
Tewaewae Point, reveals the nature of the metamorphism, though the gap
in the series occupied by the mouth of the harbour cannot be bridged in
a manner absolutely satisfactory.
The origin of Bluff Harbour and Awarua Bay, as well as Waitur>a
and other lagoons along the south coast between Bluff Hill and Fortrose,
requires some explanation.
The sand and shingle driven by the prevailing current through
Foveaux Strait came to rest at the lee side of Bluff Hill. Thence, after
the manner commonly described, a sandbank extended outwards in a
direction slightly north of east. At length it reached the headland of
Waipapa and Slope Points, which attains a height of 800 ft., or slightly
Tewaewae Pt-
Plutonic— Norite.
Plutonic^- Basic secretion.
Hypabasal— Porphyry.
Metamorphic—Hornhlpnde schist
Amphibolite.
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Fig. 2. — Geological Map of the Bluff.
more, some twenty miles to the east. Thus a considerable area of water
was cut off and enclosed by the sandspit. As the sandbank received
further additions it increased in height and mass most rapidly at its
eastern end, where its onward progress was stopped by the headland
already named. Finally, at its lowest end — that is, immediately
adjacent to Bluff Hill — the waters broke over the barricade, and restored
communication with the ocean. The channel was made across the
intruded rocks, possibly along a groove commenced by the ancient rivers,
and long since filled in with sand and alluvium. This channel, once
begun, was rapidly deepened by the inrush and outflow of the tide,
which in the middle of the channel travels at the present time at the
rate of eight knots an hour, such is the size of the basin to be filled.
Subsequently this large lagoon was subdivided by lateral sandspits,
and Waituna Lagoon was separated from Awarua Bay, and a separate
outlet was formed.
320 Transactions.
II. Description of the Bock Types and their Geological Occurrence.
For the purpose of description the rocks of the Bluff district are
conveniently divided into two main divisions, distinguished here as
4 and B. These divisions are — A, the igneous rocks; B, the meta-
morphic rocks.
Each of these divisions may be further divided into classes, the rocks
of each class in the division being entirely distinct. The igneous rocks,
Division A. consist of — I, igneous rocks of plutonic origin; II, igneous
rocks of hypabyssal origin. The term " hypabyssal ' is here used in
the same sense as Harker* uses it, hypabyssal rocks corresponding in a
general way, though not precisely, with the group " gangesteine or
" dyke-rocks " of Rosenbusch.
The metamorphic rocks, Division B, contain two classes, as follows :
I, acid metamorphic rocks; II, basic metamorphic rocks.
An attempt will be made below to show that there is an intimate
connection between the acid metamorphic rocks (Division B, Class I)
and the igneous rocks of hypabyssal origin, the metamorphic rocks being
derived from the hypabyssal ones. This is not the view taken by previous
investigations — e.g., Button and Park — but the present theory is the
outcome of the examination of material that had not previously been
brought under inspection. The point will be fully discussed in the course
of this paper.
The relationship among some classes and the absence of relationship
among others thus briefly mentioned makes it difficult to suggest any
perfectly satisfactory scheme of classification.
DIVISION A. THE IGNEOUS ROCKS.
Glass 1. — Igneous Bocks of Plutonic Origin.
1. Norite.
As has been stated above, igneous rock of plutonic origin forms the
backbone of Bluff Peninsula. The mass is believed to lie essentially one
throughout as regards chemical and mineralogical composition. This
Parkt definitely states to be the case.
The present paper will deal with the rock as it is typified in Bluff
Hill. There are numerous outcrops at the surface, as well as a continuous
outcrop at sea-level along the south-east end and the south-west side of
the range, except in the rare intervals occupied by sandy beaches. From
specimens collected from different parts of the mass some thirty sections
have been prepared and examined.
Hand-specime?i (specific gravity, 2"68). — The rock varies somewhat in
grain in different parts of the mass, though this valuation is apparently
not systematic. In some parts it tends towards a pegmatitic structure;
sometimes a dense black rock of fine grain is found.
The typical rock is a rather coarse-grained type, speckled black and
white. With a lens the black grains may be distinguished as pyroxene
or hornblende, according to the characteristic cleavage. The white specks
are feldspar.
* Harker, A., " Petrology for Students," 4th ed. (1908), p. 108.
t Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., " The Geology of Bluff Peninsula." 1887, p. 89.
Wild.— Geology of the Bluff. 321
Under the Microscope. — Examination of thin sections shows the rock
to be composed essentially of feldspar, augite, hypersthene, and horn-
blende, with magnetite as an accessory constituent. The feldspar, which
on an average forms half the rock, occurs usually in plates, ranging in
size up to 1*4 mm. long by 1 mm. broad. It also is found in irregular-
pieces enclosed ophitically by the feno-magnesian minerals. It is a
triclinic variety, showing both coarse and fine albite lamellation. The
extinction-angle ranges up to 27°, this angle being the one recorded most
frequently in sections as nearly perpendicular as possible to the albite
lamellae parallel to the brachipinacoid.
According to the statistical method of Michel Levy for determining
the feldspars, this angle denotes labradorite. In some cases, however,
an angle of 16° in found on each side of the trace of the twinning-plane.
In such a basic rock this figure indicates andesine, and Thomson thinks
this is the prevailing species, though he affirms that " probably more
than one variety of feldspar is present." Undulose extinction and the
bending of twin lamellae in a number of the crystals give evidence of
considerable crushing.
Of the ferro-magnesian minerals hornblende is the most prominent.
It frequently occurs as a fringe of varying breadth bordering the crystals
and masses of pyroxene. In these cases it is a pale-green colour, and
rather feebly pleochroic on the inner margin, but in the outer portion of
the fringe it becomes more compact and denser in colour and pleochroism,
changing from yellow-green to browny green.
Often, again, the hornblende occurs in masses apparently independent
of the pyroxenes. Under these circumstances it is compact, brownish-
green in colour, and strongly pleochroic. Thomson* mentions that " the
cores of the hornblende crystals generally consist of a paler variety in
optical continuity with the green exteriors, so that the former pre-
sence of pyroxene is suggested.'' This point will be further discussed
(pp. 331-2).
Both monoclinic and orthorhombic pyroxenes are to be seen. Augite
occurs in rounded grains and in irregularly shaped crystals. It is
colourless and non-pleochroic, and, where fresh, shows brilliant polariza-
tion colours of the second order. But often it is cloudy, and shows signs
of decomposition, which, no doubt, ultimately gives rise to the particles
of chlorite recorded by Huttonf and Thomson.*
Diallage also occurs, though somewhat sparingly. It encloses minute
tabular scales of a reddish-brown colour, arranged parallel to the basal
plane, giving it the schiller structure, which distinguishes it from augite.
The orthorhombic pyroxene is hypersthene. In some cases it exhibits
schiller structure like the diallage, but it may be distinguished from the
latter mineral by its pleochroism and by the fact that it extinguishes
straight. These characters also distinguish it from augite. The pleo
chroisrn showed a or a brownish red, b or b reddish yellow, c or c
green, pale watery colours in each case. To determine definitely that
the mineral was not enstatite, many sections were examined in convergent
light to secure an optic axial interference figure, and thus find its optical
character, but these attempts were unsuccessful. However, the pleo-
* Thomson, J. A., " Notes on some Rocks from Parapara, Bluff Hill, and Waikawa,"
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42 (1910), p. 33.
t Hutton, F. W., " Notes on the Eruptive Rocks of Bluff Peninsula," Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 23 (1891), p. 353.
11— Trans.
322 Transact ion .t.
chroism is usually accepted as sufficiently distinctive. After hornblende,
hypersthene is the chief ferro-magnesian constituent in this rock. It
occurs in rather elongated crystals, some of which show cross-fractures,
and in smaller rounded grains.
Magnetite is fairly abundant, in irregular masses, moulded on the
other minerals. Thomson* thinks the iron-ore is probably ilmenite.
He gives no reason, however, for thinking it to be ilmenite rather than
magnetite. Hamiltonf noticed considerable disturbance of the magnetic
needle while he was in this district, but, as ilmenite also affects the
magnetic needle, Hamilton's observations do not point conclusively to
magnetite, though they are certainly significant.
Order of Crystallization. — Observation of the form and arrangement
of the minerals in this rock does not support the theory suggested by
Rosenbusch as to the normal order of crystallization. According to his
theory, magnetite should have been the first mineral to crystallize, and
in sections there should be at least some well-shaped crystals idiomorphic
towards the other constituents. Next in order the ferro-magnesian
minerals should have separated out, forming crystals idiomorphic towards
the feldspar, the last mineral to crystallize.
The actual sequence of events, however, seems to have been as follows :
First a small amount of feldspar crystallized out, for crystals of this
mineral are enclosed in both magnetite and hornblende ; then the
remaining feldspar and the ferro-magnesian minerals crystallized out,
and sometimes the latter constituents show an approach to idiomorphism,
while sometimes the opposite is the case ; finally magnetite separated from
the magma, and formed interstitially.
In accordance with recent theories of the dependence of structure on
eutectic relations,! the explanation would be as follows: Feldspar was
originally in excess, and an amount crystallized out sufficient to reduce
the ratio of feldspar to ferro-magnesian minerals to a eutectic propor-
tion. These minerals then crystallized together until a eutectic propor-
tion between them and the magnetite was arrived at, when all crystallized
together, but since a large percentage of the rock was already in a
crystalline state the magetite had little chance of becoming idiomorphic.
The Origin of the Hornblende. — The Rev. H. Baron in conversation
with Captain Hutton§ long ago expressed the opinion that all the horn-
blende in this rock is of secondary origin. This opinion receives support
in the fact that very many of the pyroxene crystals are bordered by a
rim of hornblende, which first appears as a narrow fringe, pale green
in colour, and rather faintly pleochroic. This fringe increases in width
at the expense of the pyroxene, and as it widens it increases in depth
of colour and in intensity of pleochroism. Finally the pyroxene is
entirely replaced by amphibole. The examination of a very few sections
shows this change in all its stages. These observations show definitely
that at least a large amount of the hornblende is secondary.
* Thomson, J. A., " Notes on some Rocks from Parapara, Bluff Hill, and Waikawa,"
Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42 (1910), p. 33.
f Hamilton, " Notes on the Geology of the Bluff District," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 19
(1886', p. 452.
% Vogt, J. H. L., l> Physikalische-chemische Gesetze der Kristallisation folge in
Eruptivgesteine," Isch. min. u. petr. Mitt. 24, p. 437, 1905.
§ Hutton, P. W., " Corrections of the Names of some New Zealand Rocks," Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 31 (1899), p. 484.
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 323
The inference that all the hornblende in this rock is secondary i.s
supported by descriptions of similar areas in various parts of the
world. Such areas have been described by Irving* and by Williamsf
in America, by Phillips^ in Cornwall, by Reusch§ in Norway, by
Lehmann|| in Saxony, by Beckell in Lower Austria, by Wadsworth**
and by Hawesff in America, and more recently by HarkerfJ in the
west of Scotland.
As regards the causes that produced the alteration of the pyroxene
little is yet known. The experiments of Mitscherlich and Berthier (1824),
Gustav Rose (1831), and Professors Fouge and Michel Levy, of Paris,
and the recent researches of Vogt, Joly, Cusack, Doelter, Brun, Day,
Allen, and others have shown that augite appears to be the stable form
at high temperatures and hornblende at low temperatures. From this it
may be assumed that any condition tending to facilitate molecular
readjustment at ordinary temperatures must necessarily tend to facilitate
the change from augite to hornblende.
These considerations inclined Williams§§ to ascribe the uralitization
of some rocks to the action of great pressure, such as might be exerted by
the upheaval of mountains, and Lehrnann|| and HatchWl readied similar-
conclusions. Subsequently, however, Williamsf decided that, though
pressure may, and doubtless does in many instances, assist in the para-
morphism of pyroxene in rocks, it cannot in all cases be regarded as even
a necessary adjunct.
In the case of the plutonic mass of rock forming Bluff Hill the follow-
ing points are put forward merely as suggestions.
The magma was intruded at sufficient depth to allow of the formation
of a holocrystalline mass by slow cooling. At the temperature of the mass
augite was formed. When ordinary temperature was reached the augite
would tend to change to hornblende if conditions should change so as to
induce unstable equilibrium in the crystals so far as the molecular forces
were concerned. Such a change of conditions would possibly be brought
about by either or all of the following : —
(1.) Diminution of pressure by denudation of the overlying rocks.
This undoubtedly took place, but whether it would tend to induce
molecular readjustment is a matter for speculation.
(2.) Movements of depression and elevation described above.
(3.) Lateral pressure due to the folding to which the whole country
was submitted in late Palaeozoic or early Mesozoic times.
* Irving, R. ()., " Origin of the Hornblende of the Crystalline Rocks of the North-
western States," Am. Journ. Sci., vol. 26 (1883), p. 32.
t Williams, G. H., " The Gabbros and Associated Hornblende Rocks occurring in
the Neighbourhood of Baltimore, Md.," U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 28, 1886.
% Phillips, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 32 (1876), p. 155, and vol. 34 (1878), p. 471.
§ Reusch, " Die fossilienfuhrenden krystallinen Schiefer von Bergen in Norwegen,"
German translation by R. Baldauf, 1883, p. 35.
|l Lehmann, " Untersuchungen iiber die Entstehung der altkrystallinischen Schiefer-
gcsteine," p. 190; Bonn, 1884.
•j Becke, " Mineralogische und petrographische Mittheilungen," vol. 4, p. 357, 1882.
** Wadsworth, "Bulletin Museum Comparative Zoology of Harvard College, Cam-
bridge," vol. 7, p. 46.
ft Hawes, G. W., Am. Journ. Sci. (3), vol. 12, p. 136.
%X Harker, A., Mem. Geol. Surv., Tert. Ign. Rocks Skye (1904), p. 319.
§§ Williams, G. H., Am. Journ. Sci. (3\ 28, p. 266 (1884).
If If "Mineralogische und petrographische Mittheilungen." vol. 7. p. 83 (1885).
11*
324
Transactions.
In this paper the name " norite ' has been adopted in accordance
with the views of Harker and Rosenbusch.
As has been shown above, the Bluff rock consists essentially of a
soda-lime feldspar, a monoclinic pyroxene, and an orthorhombic
pyroxene. Both kinds of pyroxene are changing to hornblende, and in
the case of crystals, where the change is completed, it is impossible to sajr
whether the hornblende is derived from orthorhombic or from monoclinic
pyroxene. However, so far as may be judged from what remains, the
orthorhombic variety is dominant, and the rock is therefore a norite
rather than a gabbro.
Chemical Composition. — If the chemical composition be appealed to,
as some authors demand, it also will be found to support the classification
here suggested.
Si02
Ti02
A1203
Fe203
FeO
MnO
CaO
MgO
K20
Na20
H20 and loss on ignition
48-10
20-85
4-85
10-55
Trace.
715
3-99
0-63
2-73
I -00
Total
Specific gravity. 2-68
99-85
2. Basic Secretion.
At Starling Point the norite encloses a mass of a dark-coloured rather
tine-grained rock. Specific gravity — 3'035.
The size of the mass cannot be made out definitely, as there is a
coating of soil at this locality. The outcrop is small, being exposed in
a cutting about half a chain in length and 6 ft. or 8 ft. deep. But,
judging by the position of the outcrops of norite around it, the surface
extent of the mass cannot be more than a chain in diameter. As has
already been stated, the norite varies much in texture from point to
point, and in some cases approaches to a material similar to that now
under description. This led Hutton to describe several varieties of rock
from the district.
Under the microscope the rock presents a similar assemblage of
minerals to the norite, but there is a very noteworthy increase in the
proportion of ferro-magnesian minerals. Hornblende forms mere than
half the rock, magnetite is abundant, there is a little pyroxene, and a
basic plagioclase, sometimes containing needles of apatite, forms the
rest. There is an approach to a rough gneissic structure.
Structure and Order of Crystallization. — The rock lias a coarsely
schistose or gneissic structure, and this tends to obscure the order of
crystallization, so that it cannot be made out with any degree of accuracy.
Hornblende seems to dominate, but the edges of its crystals are extremely
ragged. In fact, no mineral can be said to be idiomorphic, and the
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff.
325
manner in which the crystals of the principal three constituents are
intergrown suggests simultaneous crystallization. The fact that there is
no sign of graphic structure, however, and the tendency towards gneissic
structure that is observable suggest recrystallization.
Park,* in 1887, described this mass as an inclusion of the meta-
morphic rocks in the norite. But this explanation now seems improbable,
as a glance at the following list of analyses will show. A and C are the
results obtained above on an analysis of the hornblende schist and the
norite respectively. They are repeated here for comparison with B, an
analysis of a specimen of the mass under discussion.
A.
B.
C.
Si02 ..
.. 6100
44-40
48-10
Al.,0,
.. 13-66
20-55
20-85
Fe203
2-43
6-57
4-85
FeO ..
.. 10-83
9-26
10-55
CaO ..
7-35
11-50
7-15
MgO ..
1-44
5-21
3-99
K,0 ..
0-52
019
0-63
Na20
1-90
114
2-73
Loss on ignitio
l .. .. 1-20
1-00
I 00
Totals
.. 100-33
99-82
w-xr,
Specific gravity
2-56
3035
2-68
The analysis shows that the inclusion is more basic even than the
norite, so that it cannot be considered merely as an included mass of
hornblende schists. For the same reason it is not likely to be due to the
complete absorption of a portion of the schist in the norite magma.
A more probable explanation of the occurrence of this mass depends
on the theory of differentiation, to which much importance is attached
by many modern geologists. Thus Harkerf says, "We are left free to
conjecture that the settling-down of crystals, which seems to be generally
ineffective in a sill or laccolite, may give rise to very important differen-
tiation in a large intercrustal magma-basin, cooling at an extremely
slow rate. Various special features observable in igneous rocks are
susceptible of interpretation on this hypothesis, and serve in a measure
to support it. The dark basic secretions or ' clots ' wdiich occur sporadic-
ally in many granites and other rocks may be taken as an example.
These consist in general of the same mineral as the normal rock, but are
much enriched in the darker and denser minerals or in those of earlier
crystallization. It seems reasonable to regard them as portions picked up
from a lower stratum of the magma-reservoir, where crystals of these
minerals accumulated by settling down in the magma."
This theory certainly seems to explain the case in point, where we have
an inclusion which, compared with the norite, shows a decrease of 3*7 per
cent, of silica, and a total increase of 6 per cent, in the oxides of the
banes iron, calcium, and magnesium. Its specific gravity, also, is 3*035,
compared with 2' 68 in the case of the norite.
* Park, J.. "" Notes on the Geology of Bluff Peninsula,'" Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv.>
18S7— S8 ry 7*>
fHarker, A., "The Natural History of Igneous Rocks," p. 322, 190S».
326 Transaction s .
Class II. — Igneous Rocks of Hypabyssal Origin.
1. Porphyry.
The typical rock is found across the channel of the harbour, opposite
Starling Point, where it forms a fringe bordering the tongue of sand
which bears the name of Tawaewae Point, and which is really the north
head of the harbour.
The outcrop extends below low-water mark, but above that line its
width is only 15 or 20 yards. The rock is traversed by joints which
divide it into more or less oblong blocks of a variety of sizes. One set
of these joints strikes approximately north-west to south-east; the other
set crosses at right angles. The dip varies from 0° to 30° X.E. The
total length of the outcrop is about 16 chains.
II and- specimen (specific gravity = 2"5). — The rock is dense, and when
freshly broken is of a light-grey colour. The weathered surface, how-
ever, is of a dirty brownish-yellow colour, and from it project numerous
crystals of feldspar.
Under the Microscope. — Thin sections show phenocrysts of feldspar in
a groundmass consisting of feldspar, quartz, hornblende, and mica.
Magnetite also occurs, partly in masses of irregular size and shape, and
partly in small crystals.
The phenocrysts of feldspar vary considerably in size, some going up
to as much as 2'4mm. by 1*2 mm., but the average size is 0*9 mm. by
0'6mm. They are chiefly orthoclase, and show twinning after the Carls-
bad law in nearly every case. Less common are phenocrysts of a plagio-
clase variety. These show the albite twinning very poorly developed, and
I have no section in which an absolutely satisfactory identification may
be made. The available evidence, however, points to albite.
None of the phenocrysts are entirely fresh, while many bear in a
marked degree the signs of decomposition, and all stages between the
two extremes are represented. The first stage is a cloudiness which
spreads irregularly over the crystal, and associated with it is the deposi-
tion of a very fine dark-coloured opaque dust. Then appear minute pale
colourless microlites, which as they increase in size assume a pale-green
colour, and are distinguishable as hornblende. As the microlites increase
in size and number, larger and more definitely shaped crystals of mag-
netite appear. The needles of hornblende grow at the expense of the
feldspar, for they penetrate through and through the crystals of this
mineral, and also appear in great number round the edges of crystals,
where they finally arrange themselves in aggregates. As mineral change
becomes more and more complete small grains of quartz and flakes of
brown mica appear. Finally we see a cloudy space, recognizable by its
size and shape as the ghost of a feldspar, containing needles of horn-
blende, grains of magnetite, and quartz and flakes of biotite.
The groundmass is partly crystalline and partly glassy. The crystal-
line portion consists of grains of feldspar and of quartz, crystals of
hornblende, and small flakes of brown mica. The grains of feld.spar
are rather rounded in shape, much decomposed, and many show undulose
extinction. The decomposition is associated with the deposition of the
fine dust above mentioned and with the formation of hornblende. Quartz
is in rounded grains, ranging up to 0"08 mm. in diameter.
Chemical Composition. — It was found impossible to obtain an analysis
of a true porphyry similar to that of the Tewaewae Point rock. Com-
parisons with rocks from American and European localities are niven
A.
B.
C.
D.
67-60
71-33
73-50
68-65
0-55
0-20
12-29 .
12-55
14-87
18-31
3-15 ■;
3-75
0-95
0-56
4-88
0-85
0-42
0-08
■
0-04
003
Sp.
2-90
0-94
2-14
1-00
1-08 .
0-58
0-29
0-12
2-16
4-20
3-56
4-74
5-67 ;
4-52
3-46
4-85
0-15 ■•- '■
0-42
0-90
0-83
Wild.— Geolor,!/ of the Bluff. 327
below. B is a type mineralogically similar to the Bluff porphyry;
C and D are analyses of typical porphyries, one from ' Analyses of
Rocks," U.S. Geol. Surv.. the other from Rosenbusch.
Si02
Ti02
A120,
Fe203
FeO
MnO
CaO
MgO
K20
Na20
Loss on ignition
Totals .. .. 99-88 99-73 100-12 99-35
Specific gravity, 2-5.
A. Porphyry, Tewaewae Point, Bluff.
B. Porphyry, Missouri. Composed principally of orthoclase and
quartz, with some microline, plagioclase, and biotite, and minor accessory
minerals. ("Analyses of Rocks," U.S. Geol. Surv., F. W. Clarke,
1904.)
C. Porphyry, Mount Zion. Contains orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz,
biotite, apatite, magnetite, and zircon. (Anal., L. G. Eakins.)
D. Alkaligranitporphyr mit Einsprengl. von Orthoklas und Oligo-
klas; grundmasse wesentlich Quartz und Anorthoklas. (Rosenbusch, H.,
"Elemente der Gesteinslehre," 1901, p. 205.)
A study of these analyses shows that compared with typical porphyries
the Bluff type is relatively rich in the oxides of the bases calcium, mag-
nesium, and iron, and correspondingly poor in silica, while the pro-
portion of alumina and alkalies is about normal. Further, it compares
favourably with the analyses of the quartz-porphyrites except as regards
the percentage of alumina. In other words, the rock is mineralogically
a porphyry, but chemically it tends towards the porphyrites.
We conclude, therefore, that from the evidence of both chemical and
mineralogical composition the rock is a porphyry which has been enriched
with the bases calcium, magnesium, and iron.
Further considerations are necessary before the method of this enrich-
ment can be studied. (See p. .334, "The Origin of the Hornblende
Schists.")
DIVISION B. THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
These are found along the southern shore of the harbour. The out-
crop is exposed between the levels of high and low water. Above high-
water mark, as has been pointed out above, is a plain of marine
denudation covered now by recent alluvium. On the other hand, the
lowest ebb of the tide fails to disclose the limits of the outcrop. The
main outcrop begins at Henderson Street, and strikes 15° S. of E. for
a distance of 15 chains. The strike then varies to E.S E., and continues
so for other 22 chains, when a southerly bend of the coast cuts off the
outcrop.
328 Transactions.
The rocks are traversed by numerous nearly vertical foliation-planes,
which divide them up into layers of varying thickness. The joints have
been mistaken for bedding-planes by previous investigators, who have
recorded a dip varying from 84° to vertical.
There is another outcrop of the rocks further up the harbour, at
Green Point, but here they are less metamorphic. They strike west-
north-west to east-south-east.
The rocks are readily divided into two main kinds. One is a coarse
dark-coloured rock consisting, as may be seen in the hand-specimen,
almost entirely of hornblende. It forms the basic class of this paper.
In the other rocks hornblende is also apparent, but no well-formed
crystals may been seen in hand-specimens, as the rocks are much finer
grained and more schistose in character. They form the acid class in
this paper.
Glass I. — Acid Metamorphic Rocks.
These rocks vary much macroscopically in the amount of hornblende
and biotite, but under the microscope all prove to be varieties of horn-
blende scist.
1. Hornblende, Schist.
Two complete series of sections were made from varieties of rock
obtained by crossing the strike at right angles. Series A was obtained
along the line marked AB on the map (fig. 2). Series B was obtained
along the line CD.
Notes of the microscopical examination of series A are appended.
A 1. - -Low-water mark, 157 ft. from high-water mark. Feldspar
phenocrysts fairly abundant; cloudy and decomposed; some contain
needles of hornblende. Hornblende in small crystals; especially nume-
rous in the vicinity of feldspars; parallel arrangement. A little biotite.
Grains of quartz, magnetite, and feldspar form groundmass.
A 2.-97 ft. Much the same as A 1.
A 3. — 67 ft. Phenocrysts of feldspar, some showing Carlsbad twin-
ning, decomposing as in A 1 and A 2. Increase of hornblende relative
to feldspar compared with A 1 and A 2. A little epfdote. Groundmass
as before.
A 4. — 37 ft. Hornblende still more prominent. Feldspar phenocrysts
much smaller and more decomposed. Schistose structure marked.
Magnetite abundant in groundmass.
A 5. - - 7 ft. Hornblende dominant; longitudinal axes of crystals
parallel. No phenocrysts of feldspar. Magnetite abundant. A little
epidote. Groundmass grains of feldspar and quartz, feldspar pre-
dominant.
A 6. — High-water mark. Rock chiefly hornblende. Schistose struc-
ture perfectly shown. One section showed remains of a feldspar pheno-
cryst. Grains of feldspar, quartz, and magnetite, and other accessories
between crystals of hornblende.
As will be seen from the map, the B series is actually a continuation
of the xV series. It is not necessary to describe the rocks in detail. They
are perfectly schistose in structure. Half the rock is hornblende. There
are no phenocrysts of feldspar, but the grains of quartz and feldspar
in the groundmass are clear, as though due to recrystallization. Biotite
is more abundant.
Summing up the results of the examination of this series of rocks,
we find that — (1) the phenocrysts of feldspar are more and more broken
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff.
32y
down the nearer they are to the plutonic mass; (2) the decomposition
of the feldspar phenocrysts corresponds to an increase in the amount of
hornblende in the rock.
These facts will be made use of when we discuss the origin of rhe
hornblende schists (p. 3*34).
Chemical Composition . — A sample of specimen No. 4, series A, was
submitted to chemical analysis, with the result given in the following
table. This analysis probably represents the average composition of the
schists, though microscopical examination of sections leads one to expect
more acid results in the case of the outer members of the series, and
more basic results in the case of those neai-er the norite.
Si02 . .
TiO
Al263 ..
Fe203 ..
FeO . .
MnO . .
CaO . .
MgO . .
K20 ..
Na20 . .
Loss on ignition .
61-00
13-66
2-43
. 10-83
7-35
. .
1-44
. .
0-52
1-90
1-20
Total
Specific gravity, 256.
100-33
Class II. — Basic Metamorphic Rocks.
1. Amphibolite.
Parallel with the series of hornblende schists just described is a band
of coarse hornblende rock. The outcrop commences at a point 330 ft.
from the shore-line measured along the line CD on the map, and extends
below the level of low water a distance of 27 ft.
Hand-specimen (specific gravity = 2'94). — A coarse-grained black or
dark-green rock. The weathered surface is rough on account of the
exposure of large crystals of hornblende. A freshly broken specimen
shows the bright cleavage surfaces of the hornblende. The rock appears
to be almost wholly crystalline, there being but a small quantity of a
dark-coloured matrix. There is no appearance of schistosity.
Under the Microscope. — The rock contains a very little feldspar in
small grains in granular masses of dark hornblende. The rest is horn-
blende, a pale watery-green variety, feebly pleochroic, and fibrous in
structure, all of which characters identify it as the form known as
uralite. Where the fibres of uralite are packed together into large
groups it is easy to recognize some of the edges of former crystals of
pyroxene, but more commonly the fibres have broken away from the
mass, inducing a schistose character.
That uralitization has taken place in the amphibolite can be proved
in a most satisfactory manner. At Green Point several dykes of a
diabase, a rock mineralogieally and chemically similar to but less meta-
morphic than this amphibolite, are found, striking north-west to south-
east. One of the dykes has suffered to a very considerable extent from
the effects of weathering. Tn consequence of this, crystals are found to
330
Transactions.
project from the weathered surface, and can readily be removed from
the soft matter that encloses them. These crystals exhibit to perfection
the form of augite, but when sections of some of them were made they
all proved to consist of a core of colourless augite surrounded by a margin
of uralite.
These facts are of great significance. If the strike of these dykes be
continued it is found that they may be expected to appear as outer
members of the hornblende-schist series lower down the harbour. There
is, therefore, no doubt that the amphibolite is a continuation of these
dykes, but that, being in closer proximity to the norite, it has suffered
metamorphism and uralitization to a greater degree.
No lengthy explanation of the name applied to this rock need be
offered, as all authorities use the term for rocks " more or less markedly
schistose in which hornblende is the dominant mineral."
The chemical composition is given below : —
SiO, 49-75
Ti02
A.UO3 ..
Fe20,
FeO
MnO ..
MgO ..
CaO .. .. •• • - "
K.,0 ..
Na,0
Loss on ignition . .
. . 17-75
514
8-75
3-49
. . 13-20
0-37
2-30
1-00
Total
101-75
Specific gravity, 2-94.
The Contact of the Amphibolite and tin. Hornblende Schists. — At the
line of junction these two rocks are more easily recognized in hand-
specimens than they are under the microscope, for the causes that pro-
duced the metamorphism in both tended to bring about an exchange of
material between the two. Thus the amphibolite is richer in feldspar
where it is in contact with the schists, and the schists are relatively
enriched with hornblende.
THE PROCESS OF URALITIZATION.
So far as I can ascertain, no writer has yet put forward an
exact definition of uralite, and there does not seem to be a con-
sensus of opinion as to what varieties of secondary hornblende are
covered by the term. For instance, Harker,* in discussing the
decomposition of augite, says, " Another common alteration is the
conversion to hornblende, which may be light green and fibrous (uralite)
or deep brown and compact." On the other hand, Williamsf mentions
the fact that the uralite fringing the pyroxenes " exhibits a marked
tendency to become compact along its outer edge." Again, GeikieJ terms
uralitization " the conversion of pvroxene into compact or fibrous horn-
blende."
* Harker, A., " Petrology for Students." 4th ed. (1908), p. 70.
t Williams, G. H., Am. Journ. Sci., vol. 28 (1884), p. 261.
% Geikie, "Text-book of Geology." vol. 2, 4th ed. (IOCS), p. 790.
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 331
Nevertheless, since perhaps the majority of authorities give pro-
minence in their definition of this mineral to a fibrous or acicular
structure, this distinction will be observed in the present paper, and
the definition adopted here is as follows : Uralite, pale-green slightly
pleochroic fibrous variety of hornblende, derived from pyroxene. The
hornblende of the norite, therefore, though of secondary origin, is not
in this paper referred to as uralite, for it is a compact variety, rather
dark in colour, and strongly pleochroic.
Uralite was first described by Gustav Rose from a green porphyritic
rock at Mostovaya, near Ekaterinburg, and at Kaminskaya, near Miask,
in the Ural Mountains. It has since been observed from many localities.
The microscopical study of rocks has shown the process of " uralitiza-
tion " to be very common, and some authors regard many hornblendic
rocks and schists to represent altered pyroxene rocks on a large scale.
The crystals obtained from the dyke at Green Point afford abundant
and excellent material for the investigation of the changes that take place
when augite is converted into uralite. These crystals are usually short
and stout, and show an equal development of the unit prisms (110),
tin' orthopinacoids (100), and the clinopinacoids (010), while the usual
terminal faces, the plus pyramids (111), are also perfectly formed.
Twinned forms, with the orthopinacoid (100) as twinning and composi-
tion plane, are also quite common.
The results obtained from an examination of sections of some of these
crystals cut in various directions will now be given.
The Core of Augite : The internal core of augite is colourless, except
where recrystallization has commenced.
Cleavage : The usual cleavage-lines are not very distinct in sections
in the zone of the prisms, though they are seen well enough in cross-
sections. What is very distinct in sections parallel to the ortho- and
clino-pinacoids is a series of parallel lines which intersect the cleavage-
lines at angles approximating 70° in sections parallel to the clinopina-
coid, and at right angles in sections parallel to the orthopinacoid.
These lines thus represent a series of parting-planes parallel to the
base (001), a not uncommon feature in augite.
Refractive Index : A rough surface in polarized light indicates the
usual high value.
Pleochroisin : Not noticeable.
Crossed nicols :
Interference colours : Bright tints of second order.
Extinction : In sections || a (100) - 37°.
b (010) = 0°.
Alteration- products tvithin the Mineral. — These are feldspar and
hornblende in about equal amount and a little olivine. The decom-
position begins at points on the cleavage-lines and proceeds most rapidly
in the direction of them. The hornblende is dark green and strongly
pleochroic. It extinguishes when the cleavage-lines of the augite arc
parallel to the vibration-directions of the nicols. The feldspar extin-
guishes at small angles. Olivine occurs in small grains; it is very
rare. There is no trace of calcite, epidote, or chlorite, minerals that
are commonly reported as associated with such changes as are here
described. The fact that hornblende and feldspar are always associated
as decomposition-products in the interior of the crystals suggests that
the material derived from the decomposing augite is divided between
332 Transactions.
them, the calcium and magnesium going towards the formation of the
one, the alkalies and alumina to the other mineral.
The internal decomposition of the augite seems in no way associated
with the formation of uralite on its margins. The border of uralite is
quite distinct, and shows no gradation towards the products of decom-
position in the interior of the crystals.
Th* Fringe of Uralite. — Dana says in his " System of Mineralogy,"
" The crystals, when distinct, retain the form of the original mineral,
but have the cleavage of amphibole. The change usually commences on
the surface, transforming the outer layer into an aggregation of slender
amphibole prisms, parallel in position to each other and to the parent
pyroxene. When the change is complete the entire crystal is made up of
a bundle of amphibole needles or fibres."
Present Observations. — The fringe of uralite varies in width with the
size of the crystal, indicating that the amount of change varies as the
surface exposed. Usually, however, it is noticed that the change has
taken place more rapidly in the direction of the vertical axis than in
the other directions, for the fringe bordering the terminations of the
crystals is wider than that bordering prismatic faces.
Statements about the parallel arrangement of the prisms of uralite
do not find support in an examination of the sections of the Green Point
crystals, for the fibres are seen to be arranged in radiating groups which
show7 no signs of systematic arrangement. Between crossed nicols some
of these groups, or parts of the groups, are extinguished, while other
groups are not. Each fibre extinguishes at an angle that varies from
15° to 18° to the direction of the longest axis, so that a dark wave
traverses the group as the nicols are rotated.
In sections parallel to the clinopinacoid the groups commonly make
an angle of 45° with the edge of the crystal, measured either in a +
or — direction. In sections parallel to the macropinacoid and to the
base these groups are commonly parallel, and the fibres show straight
extinction. This seems to indicate that the fibres are arranged in
fan-shaped aggregates parallel to the clinopinacoid, and making angles
of about 45° with the macropinacoid.
Rosenbusch* states that the fibres are parallel, and that the vertical
axis is the same in the parent mineral as in the new one. Also, that in
the case of a twinned crystal the fibres of uralite stand in twinned
position on opposite sides of the twinning-plane. With regard to this
latter statement, an occurrence in one section shows quite a different
state of affairs. The twinning-plane is distinct enough in the augite,
but disappears completely on the verge of the uralite friuge.
Chemical Changes. — So far as present knowledge goes, the composi-
tion of uralite is believed to conform nearly to that of actinolite. The
most prominent change in passing from the original pyroxene is that
corresponding to the difference existing between the two species in
general — that is, an increase in the amount of magnesia and a decrease
in that of calcium. Analyses of the Bluff minerals are compared below
with results given in Dana's " System of Mineralogy." In the absence
of other means of separating the materials the following process was
* Rosenbusch-Iddings, " Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals,"
4th ed. (1900), p. 271.
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff.
333
resorted to : Having made a sufficient number of sections to ascertain
the thickness of the covering of uralite, crystals were ground down on
all faces to remove this portion. The remainder provided material for
an analysis of the core of augite.
cleaved, and the analysis of these
position of the uralite.
From other crystals thin flakes were
was taken as representing the com-
A.
B.
C.
1).
Si02
. . 49-95
49-80
50-87
52-82
A1203
5-32
6-21
4-57
3-21
Fe„0,
3-57
4-26
0-97
2-07
FeO
7-85
9-61
1-96
2-71
MnO
. .
. ,
0-15
0-28
CaO
. . 23-45
14-80
24-44
15-39
MgO
7-57
12-39
15-37
19-04
K20
Na20
" " I Undet,
Undet.
[0-50
10-22
0-69
0-90
Loss on ignition
0-36
2-50
1-44
. 2-40
Totals
. . 98-07
99-57
100-49
99-51
Specific gravity
3-00
2-6315
3-181
3-003
A. Augite.
From dyke of amphibolite. Bluff.
B. Uralite. Forming exterior of A.
C. Central portion of pyroxene crystal, Templeton, Quebec. (Anal.,
Harrington, Geol. Canada, p. 21, 1879.)
D. Amphibole forming exterior of C. (Anal., Harrington, Geol.
Canada, p. 21, 1879.)
These analyses emphasize the change in the relative amounts of
magnesia and calcium. There is also in the case of the uralite a rise in
the percentage of alumina and iron-oxides corresponding to a fall in the
total percentage of magnesia and calcium. This is what we might expect
in the case of a mineral derived from another mineral by hydro-chemical
processes. The process of uralitization is commonly reported to be
accompanied by the separation of calcite and by the formation of
epidote.* In the case of the Green Point minerals the augite un-
doubtedly loses calcium, but neither calcite nor epidote are seen as
decomposition-products.
Both sets of analyses emphasize the fact that the change of augite to
uralite is not strictly a case of paramorphism, though usually so desig-
nated.
The causes that led to the production of uralite are discussed later
under the heading " The Origin of the Amphibolite."
III. Relationship between the various Rock Types.
It has already been stated that there is a close relationship existing
between the porphyry and the hornblende-schist series. The relationship
between the amphibolite and the hornblende schists also requires explana-
tion, and it must also be shown what part the intrusion of the norite
* See, e.g., "Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals," Rosen -
busch-Iddings, 4th ed. (1900), p. 271.
334 Transaction*.
has taken in producing or altering the various rock types. Perhaps the
best way of opening up these questions will be to discuss independently
the origin of the metamorphic rocks, and a subsequent paragraph will
deal with the relative age of all the rock types.
An attempt will now be made to deal with these problems.
A. Origin of the Hornblende Schists.
To an observer traversing the schist area described above, the solution
of the problem seems evident. The rocks are hornblende schists,
apparently well bedded, and inclined at various high angles. Intruded
into them is a mass of igneous rock. The suggestion at once occurs that
the rocks are the result of the metamorphism of a series of sediments,
produced by the igneous intrustion.
Hutton* first put forward this view in 1872, referring to the rocks
as slates and sandstones, some argillaceous and some arenaceous.
Parkf made similar statements in 1887, and added, " Tewaewae
Point, on the mainland opposite to the Pilot-station, appears also to be
formed of sedimentary rocks, but I had no opportunity of determining
this." This is the view at present held as to the origin of the schists.
A visit to Tewaewae Point, however, and an examination of the rocks
that actually do occur there, at once raises grave doubts as to the correct-
ness of this view. For there we find not a sandstone, but a typical
porphyry. Microscopical examination shows evidence of strain in the
undulose extinction of some of the feldspars, and metamorphism is
indicated in other ways. The feldspar phenocrysts are cloudy, they
have irregular outlines, and new minerals are closely associated with
their decomposition. The chief of these are hornblende, mica, and iron-
ores. The rocks are traversed by joints striking in the same direction
as those found in the schists. The outcrop disappears below low-water
mark, and presumably reappears on the other side of the harbour. At
any rate, I have the assurance of the Engineer of the Bluff Harbour
Board that rocks outcrop in situ right across the channel.
Microscopical examination of the members of the schist series shows
that the outermost members contain comparatively large phenocrysts of
feldspar. These are much broken down, and are quite surrounded by
microlites and crystals of hornblende. Associated with this is the
separation of iron-ores, especially magnetite. As the norite is ap-
proached these residual feldspars are found to decrease in size, until
finally with the innermost series they disappear completely. This
gradual disappearance of the feldspars is found to correspond to a
gradual increase in the amount of ferro-magnesian minerals, especially
hornblende and iron-ores.
The groundmass of the porphyry consists of feldspar and quartz, and
small flakes of hornblende and brown mica. The groundmass of the
schist is essentially similar. The feldspar grains have been considerably
comminuted, while an opposite process has taken place in the case of the
hornblende and mica. The schists also contain secondary minerals, such
as apatite and epidote.
* Hutton, P. W.. " Report on Geology of Southland," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv ,
1871-72, p. 89.
fPark. J.. "The Geology of Bluff Peninsula," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1887-88
•p. 72.
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 335
The analyses of the porphyry, the norite, and an intermediate member
of the schist series are repeated here for comparison.
Porphyry. Schist. Norite.
Si02 .. •• •• 67-60 61-00 48-10
Al263
Fe20,
FeO
CaO
MgO
K,0
Na20
Loss on ignition
. . 12-29
13-66
20-85
3-15
2-43
4-85
.. , 4-88
10-83
10-55
2-90
7-35
7-15
. . " 1-08
1-44
3-99
216
0-52
0-63
. . '.'.'. 5-67
1-90
2-73
. . " 015
1-20
100
Totals .. .. 99-88 100-33 99-85
Specific gravity . . . . • . • • 2-68
These considerations — namely, the held relations of the rocks and
their mineralogical and chemical compositions — lead to the conclusion
that the hornblende schists are derived from the porphyry by meta-
morphism induced by the intrusion of the norite. The porphyry has
become sheared by enormous pressure, so that it has become foliated,
and its original character is masked.
The thermal metamorphism of igneous rocks has received compara-
tively little attention, and geological literature available to me presents
no comparisons with the area to which this paper refers, and gives no
description of the chemical changes that take place in similar circum-
stances.
In the case under consideration the principal changes to be accounted
for are the destruction of the phenocrysts of feldspar in the porphyry,
the devitrification of the glassy portions of its groundmass, and the great
increase in the amount of the ferro-magnesian constituents.
The first two points can be explained by the ordinary processes of
hydro-, thermo-, and dynamo-metamorphism, all of which would be
active at the time of the intrusion of the norite. The water would be
partly magmatic and partly meteoric.
The third point, however, involves the supply of large quantities of
calcium, magnesium, and iron for the formation of the ferro-magnesian
minerals, for the supply in the original porphyry was by no means
sufficient, and, in any case, the chemical analyses show that a large
quantity has been introduced.
The norite we may at once presume was the store from which the
supply of these elements was derived, for the norite magma is very rich
in them.
Transference of Material from the Norite to the Porphyry . — Perco-
lating water is universally recognized as a most potent agent, especially
at such high temperatures as would obtain in the case of a plutonic
intrusion. The small percentage of water in schists — 1 per cent, by
weight or 2 per cent, by volume — is held to be sufficient to account for
all the recrystallization that has taken place in rocks that are completely
metamorphosed. The solubility of minerals increases greatly when they
are in a state of strain. All these facts are well attested.
336
Transaction*.
All the conditions for solution and recrystallization were abundantly
present in the case under consideration. The intrusion of the norite
produced a high state of strain in the porphyry. There is still evidence
of this in the strain shadows observable in the feldspar phenocrysts at
Tewaewae Point, and the strain must have been much greater in rocks
nearer the intrusion. This is shown in the schists by the number of
shearing-planes, often but a few inches apart.
The temperature of the intruded mass must have been very high,
and the cooling must have been prolonged, for the norite is holocrystalline
and of coarse grain.
Water would be present in sufficient amount, as percolated meteoric
water in the porphyry perhaps, but more probably the supply would be
the magmatic waters from the norite itself.
B. The Origin of the Amphibolite.
Of amphibolites Harker* says, " The name ( amphibolite ' has often
been applied to rocks, usually more or less markedly schistose, in which
hornblende is the dominant mineral. Many of them are doubtless the
results of dynamic action on diorites, and sometimes on dolerites and
gabbros."
Teallf describes the formation of a hornblende schist from a dolerite
(or diabase) from two dykes which occur in the Archaean gneiss of the
north-west of Scotland, near the Village of Scour ie.
A comparison of his analyses with that of the Bluff amphibolite is
instructive: —
Si02
Ti02
A1203
Fe,03
FeO
MgO
CaO
K20
Na20
H20
CO.
Totals
A.
B.
0.
. .
. . 47-45
49-78
49-75
. .
1-47
2-22
. .
. . 14-83
1313
17-75
2-47
4-35
5-14
14-71
11-71
8-75
. .
500
5-40
3-49
. .
8-87
8-92
13-20
. .
0-99
1-05
0-37
. .
2-97
2-39
2-30
. .
1-00
1-14
1-00
0-36
0-10
. 100-12
10019
101-75
Specific gravity
3105
3-111
A. Dolerite (diabase?), Scourie, north-west Scotland.
B. Hornblende schist derived from A.
C. Amphibolite, dyke, Bluff, derived from diabase.
Teall's conclusions are: "(1) That the hornblende schist of the
Scourie dykes has been developed from a dolerite by causes operating
after the consolidation of the dolerite, and that the metamorphosis ha^
* Harker, A.. " Petrology for Students," 4th ed. (1008), p. 326.
t Teall, J. J. H., " On the Metamorphosis of Dolerite into Hornblende Schist "
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41 (1885), p. 142.
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 337
been accompanied by a molecular rearrangement of the augite ami
feldspar ; and (2) that the molecular rearrangement has in certain cases
taken place without the development of foliation."
Other cases of the formation of hornblende schist from igneous rock
have been described by Allport,* who, in his summary, expresses the
opinion that " hornblende schists may be metamorphosed igneous rocks,
some being derived from dolerites or gabbros, while others are very
probably foliated diorites."
These considerations, in conjunction with the chemical ami
mineralogical composition and the structure of the rock, suggest that
our amphibolite is derived from the metamorphism of a basic igneous
rock. Furthermore, at Green Point there actually does occur a basic
igneous dyke rock consisting chiefly of augite in process of uralitization,
and striking in a direction such as to indicate its identity with the
amphibolite of the Lower Harbour series.
There yet remains to be shown the causes that produced the change
to amphibolite.
Williamsf points out that augite appears to be the stable form at
high temperatures and hornblende at low temperatures. The change,
therefore, must have been subsequent to the consolidation of the dykes,
for at the time of intrusion the temperature would have been too high
to admit of the formation of hornblende.
We have, therefore, to supply some conditions such as would facilitate
molecular readjustment in the augite crystals after consolidation. Such
conditions would certainly attend the intrusion of the norite. We need
not assume, however, that the intrusion of the plutonic mass at once
produced uralitization of the augite. On the contrary, the heat attend-
ing the intrusion may have been so high as to prohibit the formation of
hornblende. The important point is that a state of strain was induced
throughout the whole intruded mass. Evidence in support of this
statement has been given above. This condition of strain would con-
tinue to exist after the consolidation of the norite, and when the
temperature had again fallen to normal. Then would commence the
process of uralitization, and it would be assisted by the percolating
waters that aided in the metamorphism of the porphyry.
The conclusions here are, therefore, similar to those of Teall in the
case of the Scourie dykes. The amphibolite is derived from a diabasic
rock by metamorphism that most probably acted after the consolidation
of the diabase, and was accompanied by a molecular readjustment of the
augite.
C . Relative Age of the Rocks.
The porphyry and the rocks derived from it — that is, the hornblende
schists — are the oldest rocks, for into them the other rocks have been
intruded.
Of the intrusive rocks, we assume that the diabasic dykes are older
than the norite, for the diabase is metamorphosed to an amphibolite, and
the metamorphism is presumably connected with the intrusion of the
norite.
* Allport, " On the Metamorphic Rocks surrounding the Land's End Mass of
Granite," Quart. Journ. Geo]. Soc., vol. 32 (1876), p. 407.
+ Williams, G. H., Am. Journ. Sci.. vol. 28 (1884), p. 259.
338 Transactions.
IV . Age of the Kocks.
^4. Age of the Metamorphic Hocks.
Hector early classed the hornblende schists in his Te Anau series on
account of their lithological resemblance to rocks of the typical area.
He referred the Te Anau series to the Devonian period, because in
Nelson Province the rocks were thought by him to underlie the Maitai
slates, which were classed as of Carboniferous age.
Hutton,* in 1875, placed the rocks in his Kaikoura formation,
corresponding to the Te Anau series of Hector. Of the age of the
Kaikoura formation he says, "As it underlies quite unconformably the
Maitai formation, which is of Lower Jurassic or Triassic age, we may
consider it for the present as belonging to the Carboniferous period."
In 1877 Hectorf placed the Te Anau series in the Maitai system, to
which he now ascribed a Triassic age. Subsequently, however, he gave
up this correlation, and the Maitai system was referred back to the
Carboniferous age.
In 1885 Hutton J gave up his name of Kaikoura formation in favour
of the nomenclature of Hector. At the same time he adopted the corre-
lation of the Geological Survey for the Maitai system.
In 1877 Park§ reported on the Bluff Peninsula at the instance of the
Geological Survey Department. He says, " There is only one sedi-
mentary formation represented in this area, and, although it contains
no fossil remains, it is referred to the Te Anau series, to which the
mineral character of its rocks have some resemblance."
In his latest work Park|| refers to these schists as argillites. In one
place (p. 42) he says they are " of the Wangapeka formation (Mana-
pouri system, Silurian age) "; in another place (p. 46) they are " argil-
lites that belong to Kakanuian or Middle series (Ordovician age) of the
Manapouri system."
Present Conclusions. — In the entire absence of palaeontological and
stratigraphical evidence we have to rely solely on lithological evidence.
Previous investigators have apparently failed to recognize the extremely
metamorphic state of the schists, and have assigned to them a correlation
that their original nature does not justify.
The dykes of diabase at Green Point (amphibolite in the schist
series), however, are rocks similar to those of the Te Anau series — namely,
greenstones, aphanite, breccias, or greenstone breccias in the Te Anau-
Wakatipu area, and diabase and diabase breccias in the Nelson District.
In the absence of other evidence, therefore, we shall place the basic dykes
in the Te Anau series of the Maitai system. The porphyry, therefore,
and the hornblende schists will be somewhat older than the basic dykes,
but there is at present no reason to remove them altogether from the
same series.
B. Age of the Intrusive Rocks.
The evidence for the age of the plutonic rock is even more scanty.
Park, in 1887, thought the mass was of late Carboniferous age, for he
* Hutton, F. W., " Geology of Otago " (1875), p. 36.
f Hector, Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1877.
$ Hutton, F. W., " Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand," Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc, vol. 41, p. 191 et seg. (1885).
§ Park, J., " The Geology of Bluff Peninsula," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1887-88, p. 72.
|| Park, J., " Geology of New Zealand," 1910.
Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 339
mistook the rock for syenite, boulders of which were thought to be found
in the Hokonui Hills, of Permian age. It is now known that there is
no rock resembling the norite in the Hokonui conglomerates.
In his " Geology of New Zealand," recently published, Park makes
no definite statement of the age of the norite intrusion, beyond discussing
it under his Manapouri system, which includes series of Cambrian,
Ordovician, and Silurian age.
There is, in fact, no evidence that accurately fixes the age of this
intrusion. We know definitely that it is younger than the intruded
rocks — that is, late or post Carboniferous. Very probably the intrusion
is connected with the widespread elevation that in Jurassic times enlarged
New Zealand to continental dimensions. This movement resulted in rock-
folding, and the main mountain-ranges were formed. The folding was
associated with the intrusion of igneous rocks in various localities.
Art. XXXVI. — The Anatomical Structure of the New Zealand Piperaceae.
By Anne F. Ironside, M.A.
[Read before the Manaioatu Philosophical Society. 20th April, 1911.]
The Piperaceae have formed the subject of much research recently, by
Campbell, Johnson, and Hill, to throw light on the relationships of the
order, and on the phylogeny of the Angiosperms generally.
Hill's preliminary account on seedling-structure in the order appeared
in the " New Phytologist," No. 3, 1904 ; the full account appearing in
the " Annals of Botany," April, 1906. He gives a comprehensive account
of seedling-structure in Piper cornifolium and in many Peperomias, then
a description of development in the Saurineae, the whole concluding with
certain theoretical conclusions. Hill, in common with Johnson, looks on
Peperomia as a reduced genus ; but he suggests that this reduction mav
be due to the epiphytic character of many of the species.
The object of the present investigation was the examination of the
anatomical structure of the mature plant and seedling of the New Zealand
representatives of the order, to see what bearing they had on the subject.
The work was commenced at the Auckland University College some three
years ago. My thanks are due to Professor A. P. W. Thomas for the
assistance he rendered me.
New Zealand Representatives.
There are three representatives of the order : —
1. Macropiper excelsum is either a shrub, forming a common under-
growth, or a small tree, often 20 ft. in height, aromatic, glabrous. Stem
flexuose, jointed. Leaves 3-5 in. long, broady ovate-cordate, often sharply
pointed ; petioles 1-2 in. long, with sheathing base, which serves as a pro-
tective organ. Catkins solitary or 2 together, axillary, erect, slender
1-4 in. Ions; ; berries vellow.
340 Transactions.
2. Peperomia EvMicheri (P. Urvilleana of Hooker, 20) is a small creep-
ing, succulent herb. Grows in damp woods, on rocks, less often on trees.
3. A second Peperomia, which is probably identical with the Pepe-
romia reflexa of Australia and many tropical countries, is not very common
in New Zealand, and was not obtainable for investigation.
Anatomical Features.
Stem.
The woody stem of Macropiper excelsum shows the double ring charac-
teristic of the woody Piperaceae. In a transverse section we find on the
outside periderm ; beneath is cortical tissue. A young stem shows a
distinct epidermis, the cells of which are more or less oblong in outline ;
immediately below are from 2 to 3 rows of cells, showing tangential divi-
sions. It is from these we have the periderm.
Below the epidermis, or periderm, is well-marked collenchyma, espe-
cially thick behind the bundles. De Bary refers to a similar structure
in Piper rugosum : :i The hypodermal layer surrounds the whole stem
as a distinct closed, multiseriate (collenchymatous) layer." The collen-
chymatous layer consists of from 8 to 10 layers, narrowing to less layers
with slightly wider elements between the bundles.
Immediately beneath this is a discontinuous ring of sclerenchymatous
elements, one or two elements wide, abutting at places on the vascular
bundles ; longitudinal sections show these elements to be branched occa-
sionally.
Then comes the outer ring of bundles, each bundle separated by a wide
medullary ray from its neighbour. The bundles of this ring show secondary
thickening to a marked degree. On the inside of this ring is a sclerenchy-
matous band several layers thick, broken occasionally between two bundles
(fig. 2).
In the centre of the stem is medulla, in which is a ring of separate
bundles. In stems % in. to 1 in. broad there are about 10, but the
number varies in accordance with the size of the stem ; 3 to 4 is common
in young parts, especially seedlings.
On the outside of each bundle both of the outer and often of the inner
ring are much-thickened sclerenchymatous elements. Then there is the
inner sclerenchymatous band. De Bary, remarking on the inner scleren-
chymatous band, says, " The converse case, that a continuous layer of
sclerenchyma supports the whole inner side of the ring of vascular bundles,
is rare in Dicotyledons. This is the case in the woody Piperaceae — Artanthe,
Chavica sp."
In some stems — Ranunculus repens, for instance — we find sclerenchy-
matous elements on both sides of the bundle, representing a sheath. It
is probable that in the Piperaceae these sclerenchymatous elements repre-
sent the bundle-sheath, which has become much thickened and extended
on the inner side for mechanical purposes. There is sclerenchyma to the
inside of each bundle of the medullary circle, but it does not form a con-
tinuous ring ; also at the base of the stem, and in young branches coming
from the base, as in fig. 6a, in seedlings the continuity of the ring disappears,
all which lends to the view that the sclerenchymatous ring is an extended
sheath.
The phloem consists of several layers showing deeply staining sieve-tubes,
and companion cells ; sieve-plates, where cut through, show very fine pits.
Ironside. — -Anatomical Structure of N .Z. Piperaceae.
341
The cambium shows especially well the tangential divisions for wood
and bast formation. The cambial or merismatic region is continuous
round the stem in the outer ring, though it is only where the cambial layer
passes through the bundle that it gives rise to wood and bast. Between
the bundles the tangential divisions increase to the medullary ray. In no
instance are secondary bundles found between the primary bundles.
The wood, as is seen in longitudinal sections, shows pitted and scalari-
form vessels and pitted wood-fibres, besides annular and spiral elements
of the protoxylem. Some of the bundles show the primary elements of
the wood to be distinctly scattered ; longitudinal sections and oblique
/; '
i^\y\
Fig. 1. Outer tissues, young stem : a. epidermis ; b, collenchyma ; c, sclerenehyina -
X 150. M. excels ipn.
Fig. 2. Portion of sclerenehyina band : a, sclerenehyina ; b, medulla at break in rinsi
passing into medullary rajr. x 44. M. excelsum.
Fig. 3. Inner portion of bundle from outer ring, showing scattered primary xylem :
a, secondary xylem ; b, wood-fibres ; c, c', protoxylem to sides and to inside
of bundle ; d, boundary of sclerenchymatous band. X 44, M . excelsum.
Fig. 4. Bundle from stem : a, phloem ; b, cambial region ; c, xylem. x 150. Pepe-
romia Endlicheri.
transverse sections show the protoxylem in many cases to be endarch,
but there are frequently scattered elements to the sides of the bundle as
well (see fig. 3). The question is. Is this a trace of centripetal wood-
formation ?
In the medullary bundles secondary-wood formation does not take
place to the same extent as in the outer ring.
On the inside of the wood, in the bundles of both rings, are a fair
number of parenchymatous elements. At first sight they look like internal
phloem, but on examination of young stems, and especially of those bundles
of the inner ring where there are very few lignified elements, it is seen that
these are only parenchymatous elements. Some bundles show only 6 to 8
lignified elements in a mass of tissue staining deeply with haematin. As
more wood is formed, more of this becomes lignified also, but a little to
the inside always remains unlignified. In bundles where the primary
xylem is scattered, the elements are scattered through parenchymatous
elements.
The medullary rays are very wide, sometimes 5 to 6, often 10 to 12
elements wide, parenchymatous mainly : in older stems slightly lignified.
342 Transactions.
Young stems, the base of the stem, and to a less extent an older stem, show
the central medulla and medullary rays thickly set with starch.
Engler has said that in Macropiper heckeria, Piper chavica, the bundles
are in rings, the outer bundles joined. In Macropiper excelsum the bundles
of the outer ring are separated by very wide medullary rays, as already
stated. Tangential sections can also be cut in which the medullary ray
is continuous right through. A portion of the internode of the woody
stem was boiled for some time in water, and the outer tissues stripped off.
The bundles showed only an occasional join. Some of the bundles could
be separated throughout almost the whole length of the piece, 2 in. There
is no network of anastomosing. A join is effected by a branch of very
Fig. 5. Bundle from stem, showing xylein scattered : <i. phloem ; b, cambium , c, xylem.
X 150. P. Endlicheri.
Fig. 6. Joining among central bundles in lowest internode seedling (see tig. 6a, 6).
X 44. M. excelsum.
few elements. A longitudinal face shows no anastomosing. Hence it
must be concluded that the outer ring of bundles in Macropiper excelsum,
at least, is only occasionally branched. Branching and forking of the
bundle takes place at the nodes.
Peperom ia Endlich eri .
Peperomia Endlicheri is a rock-plant, less often an epiphyte. Its stem
is succulent, its leaves store water. A cross-section through the stem
shows on the outside an epidermis of narrowish elements. The cortex is
succulent, and shows oil-sacs. The presence of oil is highly characteristic
of the Piperaceae. Here, as in Piperaceae generally, the oil-sac consists
merely of one of the cells of the cortex. Strasburger and De Bary both
make reference to the ethereal oil found in Pipers ; Engler says mucilage
passes in the epidermis and cortex, but the walls of the passages do not
differ from those of the cells around ; the contents give a pungent odour
to the plant.
Scattered in the ground tissue of P. Endlicheri are bundles showing
an arrangement as in many Monocotyledons. But in Peperomia, as Engler
an others point out, the bundles have a cambium. In the New Zealand
Peperomia, however, the activity of the cambium is at a minimum The
amount of lignified tissue always remains small. There is no definite
arrangement in this species in rings ; whereas in some Peperomias there are
rings. In Peperomia qalioides there are two rings of five.
Ironside. — Anatomical Structure of N.Z. Piperaceae.
343
The petiole of P. EndUcheri shows one large central bundle and two
smaller ones, one on each side of the central one. The leaf shows an
epidermis consisting of several layers, as seen in many Peperomias. The
mesophyll-cells are also large, contain but very little chlorophyll, and store
water.
Base, of Macropiper.
The base of M. excels um is swollen, and stored with nutritive material
(fig. 6a). This is shown even in young specimens. The nutritive material
chiefly takes the form of starch, which is contained in the medulla and
medullary rays, and also in the cortex.
In the young branch coming from the base of the stem the stem shows
two rings of vascular bundles, as usual. But the sclerenchyma appears
only on the inside of each bundle of the outer ring ; there is no continuous
band of sclerenchyma, though there are occasionally slight indications^of
Fig. 6a.
a, Base of M. excehvm (x scars where stems have been broken off) ; b, young
seedling, half life-size.
extension of thickening between the bundles. The more usual number
of bundles in the medullary circle in the youngest parts seems to be three.
As one passes up the stem the sclerenchymatous elements gradually form
a continuous band.
Coming to the main stem, near the base in the region marked 1 in
fig. 6a, b, there is a distinct corky layer outside with a collenchymatous
band below. The structure of the rings is much the same as higher up
the stem, but there is abundant starch everywhere. The bends of the
sclerenchymatous ring, also, are here much deeper, and extend more into
the interior of the stem.
As one passes down to region 2 the sclerenchymatous ring gradually
disappears, and sclerenchyma occurs only to the inside of each bundle,
extending over into the medulla in more or less club-shaped, rounded
masses. The discontinuity of the sclerenchyma probably allows for the
easy passage of food-material. Each of the central bundles is seen to be
formed by the fusion of a bundle, or bundles, of the outer ring with a central
bundle of the internode above. Fusion invariably starts at the xylem
end, some bundles distinctly showing two masses of xylem at each side of
a central line.
?,\4
Transactions.
In region 3 the fusion of bundles of the outer ring with medullary
bundles is traced; but the whole is gradually merged in the one ring typical
of the structure of the subsidiary roots in M. excelsum.
Hypocotyl.
The details of transition in the hypocotyl in M. excelsum. were not at
all rigid. There are six plumular traces, which are arranged on either
Fig. 8
Fig. q
Fig. 7. Transverse cotyledon, M. excelsum, passing through midrib : a, upper ; b, lower
epidermis ; c, xylem ; d, phloem. X 150.
Figs. 8 and 9. Hypocotyl below entry of cotyledon- traces. X 150.
side of the axis in threes. These appear to fuse together, the xylems first
of all. A single cotyledonary trace enters from each cotyledon. On
its entry the phloem. is found in two masses on either side of the xylem ;
the elements travel towards the centre,
and leave the protoxylem exarch, as in
Peperomia amplexifolia, P. tithymaloides,
and P. maculosa. The phloem masses
ultimately fuse with the plumular phloem ;
as the xylem from the plumular traces
moves also towards the centre a central
plate of xylem is formed ; and we find a
typical diarch structure. But the plumu-
lar xylem may be very small in amount ;
so that, as in Piper cornifolium, the central
plate is composed mainly of elements
derived from the cotyledonary traces.
But in one seedling examined the plate
was composed mainly of elements derived
from the plumular traces, while the mes-
arch elements from the cotyledonary traces decreased in amount. The
plumular traces showed lignified tissue, and were not wholly meristematic,
as in Piper cornifolium.
Transverse petiole, young plant of
M. excelsum : b, dorsal ; a, ventral
side; c, bundle, x 44.
Root— Macropiper excelsum.
Ln M. excelsum the roots are adventitious. The primary root is very
early lost. On uprooting the plant one finds it characteristically forked.
Very often a seedliug bearing only the two cotyledons has lost its primary
root.
Ironside. — Anatomical Structure of N.Z. Piperaceae.
345
The structure was carefully examined. Secondary thickening is deve-
loped to a marked degree, and is especially noticeable near the base of the
stem. The bundles form a ring, each separated by wide medullary rays,
which are always densely granular. The medulla is also stored with starch.
Sections through the base of the stem and the seedling show that the
bundles in the root are continuous with those of the stem ; the ring of the
stem gradually passes over into that of the root. The centripetal xylem
in the root can be traced between the bundles, and sometimes occurs as
Fir, 12
G. I I
Fig 14
Fig. 15.
Fig. 11. Hypocotyl, showing endodermis. X 150. M. excelsum.
Fig. 12. Shows splitting of xylem plate. X 150. M. excelsum.
Fig. 13. Root, Peperomia : 6 protoxyleins, c ; b, cortex ; a, piliferous layer.
Fig. 14. Stem, Peperomia, longitudinal : a, annular vessels ; b, secondary xylem ;
c, phloem ; d, cortical tissue. X 150.
Fig. 15. Stele from root, older plant : 8 protoxyleins, c ; 8 phloem masses, b ; a, endo-
dermis. Small amount of central medulla. X 150. M. excelsum.
scattered elements. Scattered elements often occur in the stem, to the
sides of the bundle ; so it would seem that there are traces of centripetal
xylem in the stem. Again, in the peduncle, where one might expect to
find ancestral traces, many of the bundles show small elements to the sides
of the bundle.
Root — Peperomia Endlicheri .
In P. Endlicheri, on the other hand, we find a small stele in the root,
with 6 (sometimes 6 to 8) protoxylems, but with very feebly developed
xylem, so that there is no complete centripetal plate.
346
Transactions .
P. Endlicheri is a rock-plant, living on humus lodged in rock-crevices,
or occurs as an epiphyte, but is never found on the ground. The roots
are adventitious, and form mat-like masses at the nodes. In accordance
with its habit, there is no need for great mechanical development, as in
Macropiper excelsum ; hence the root-structure is reduced. We may re-
gard the structure seen in the root of Peperomia Endlicheri as a reduction
from a type such as Macropiper excelsum (younger roots) in adaptation
to environment.
Conclusions.
Several theories have been put forward as to the origin of Monocoty-
ledons and Dicotyledons, and their relation to one another. One theory
is that Dicotyledons have come from Monocotyledons, the connection
being shown through the Araceae and Piperaceae ; another that Monocoty-
ledons have come from Dicotyledons ; and, further, that Monocotyledons
are diphyletic.
The result of the present investigations on the New Zealand Piperaceae
has been to lead to the following conclusions concerning the Piperaceae,
and the relations between Mono- and Di-cotyledons : That Monocoty-
ledons and Dicotyledons have a common ancestry, though the point of
Fig
a. Seedling stem, showing slieath merging into stem ; b, passing into lowest internode of
seedling — 1 'af- traces passing in to outer ring, bundles passing in from outer ring-
to centre (diagrammatic).
convergence lies probably far back in time, the habit and structure of
Monocotyledons being adaptations from the dicotyledonous form to their
peculiar conditions of life. That Peperomia is a reduced genus, compared
with Macropiper ; that the connection between Monocotyledons and Di-
cotyledons may perhaps be shown by an order siich as the Piperaceae, where
the one form, Peperomia, shows a reduction from the Macropiper form, the
reduction being in the direction of Monocotyledons. That the Piperaceae
are relatively an ancient family. They show a relation or resemblance to
Aroids, more particularly among Monocotyledons ; the key to the connec-
tion between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons may perhaps be found
in a connection between the Piperaceae and Araceae.
Hill, who "is in full accord with this view, that Peperoma is a reduced
genus," suggests " that the determining factor which has brought about
Ironside. — Anatomical Structure of N .Z. Piperaceae.
Q I T
6 \ t
the reduction may be found in the epiphytic habit of many of the forms " ;
and later says, " Nothing has been said regarding the bearing of the
geophilus habit exhibited by certain species of Peperomia."
Macropiper excelsum comes very near a geophilous condition in having
a swollen base stored with food-material ; the adventitious roots near the
base and for some distance from it are also stored with starch. The plant
is sometimes tall, sometimes short and more shrub-like. Peperomia
Endlicheri occurs both as a lithophyte and chasmophyte, less often as an
epiphyte. Under these conditions it has succulent stems and adventitious
Qp cp
c
■0 QVf
Six steles passing downwards through lowermost internode of seedling (diagrammatic) :
a, four bundles just formed again in centre; b, c, central bundles joining to form
two; c, d, e, central bundles move further and further outwards till they are finally
merged in outer ring ; e, slightly elongated, passing out to root; /, stele with branch
to root. All the steles are slightly eccentric with regard to rest of stem.
roots, both stem and root showing reduced structure. Now, very many
Monocotyledons are adapted to suit geophilous, epiphytic, aquatic, or
saprophytic conditions.
Stem-structure.
It has been shown (Miss Sargant) that in connection with a geophilous
condition extra - fascicular cambium would first disappear; then the
cambial zone, because the need for mechanical vascular tissue has dis-
appeared. M. Queva has shown that a distinct cambial zone occurs with
the bundles of some Monocotyledons, and traces of it in others. Now,
in Macropiper excelsum, while there is no interfascicular bundle-formation,
there is marked secondary thickening, necessary to its form. In some
Peperomias the bundles are arranged in rings, as P. galioides. In Pepe-
romia Endlicheri the scattered vascular system, and the fact that, though
348 Transactions.
a cambium is differentiated, still the amount of xylem formed remains
constantly very small, point to reduction.
As a general rule, among herbaceous, bulbous, &c, Monocotyledons
the primary root disappears with the cotyledons. In M. excelsum there
is early loss of the primary root, and great development of adventitious
roots ; there are numerous adventitious roots from the nodes in P. End-
licheri. The loss of the primary root is, in all cases, probably connected
with geophilous characters. Among the Ranunculaceae, which are ad-
mitted to be primitive, Eranihus shows the primary root replaced in the
second spring by a circle of roots.
Leaf.
The leaf- venation seen in M. excelsum somewhat resembles that seen
in such Aroids as Zantedeschia, Arum. Professor Areschong has remarked
that the linear leaves characteristic of most bulbous Monocotyledons are
better adapted to push upwards through the soil than any dicotyledonous
type ; and that the bulbous plant seems in many respects the most highly
specialized form of geophyte, its squat axis and pointed leaves, with broad
sheathing base, being clearly adaptations to geophilous life.
In M. excelsum the leaf is pointed, often sharply so, especially in very
young plants. There is always a sheath to the petiole, which entirely
covers the young bud or young leaf, and is clearly a protective organ. In
P. Endlicheri the leaves are more pointed in the young plant than in the
old ; but here the epidermis is of several layers., and stores water.
Hypocotyl.
Although details of transition in the hypocotyl are not rigid in the
Piperaceae, they may still be of value. A similar type of structure has
been found by different investigators in the Ranunculaceae, generally
acknowledged to be primitive ; in the Labiatae, Centrospermae ; in all
examined Papaveraceae, Capparidaceae, Resedaceae. Cruciferae ; in Pinus
maritima ; and in many Monocotyledons. The same may perhaps in time
be shown for further orders. Is it not possible, then, that the hypo-
cotyledonary structure may be of phylogenetic value in showing a line
of connection, or it may be common ancestry, for Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons ?
It would seem, then, that Macropiper is a primitive form ; Peperomia
an advance with reduction ; while Monocotyledons may have arisen as
modifications and reductions of the dicotyledouous type, as more specialized
forms, though earlier in time, perhaps, than the Piperaceae. The course
of advance is. however, still shown by the relation of Peperomia to Piper,
where the reductions arising in the former in response to environment are
all in the direction of Monocotyledons, the monocotyledon ous type most
closely resembled being the Araceae.
In the specialization and reduction of Peperomia we see tendencies
which have become firmly established in Monocotvledons.
Cooke. — Observations on Salicornia australis.
349
Art. XXXVII.- — Observation* on Salicornia australis.
By Miss F. W. Cooke, M.A.
Communicated by Professor H. B. Kirk.
[Read before, the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th August, 1917.]
Introduction.
Salicornia australis is a small halophyte which grows abundantly in New
Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, along the sea-shores, and especially
at the mouths of tidal rivers.
The genus consists of about eight species, found on most temperate and
tropical shores, and occasionally in saline places inland (5).
'' In central and northern Europe the first settler in littoral swamps
is Salicornia herbacea, a succulent herb, and by the Mediterranean shrubby
species of Salicornia (S. fruticosa, S. macrostackya, S. sarmentosa) occur
in such habitats " (4, c).
I append notes under two headings — (1) Plant-habits ; (2) Structure.
(1.) Plant-habits.
From April to June underneath the plants of #. australis are seen a large
number of seedlings in which the plumule has made no appearance. Seed-
lings were only found where the plant was growing in the sand. (For the
development of seedlings, see fig. 1.)
Fig. 1. — Seedlings of Salicornia grown in laboratory. (The numbers 2, 3, &c., denote
the age of the plant in weeks. The one numbered 9 has three cotyledons.)
In autumn many plants in exposed positions die down and appear to be
dead, but sprout up again from the base in July and August. In other
plants the branches have a withered appearance, but from them fresh
blanches arise, so that the plant remains green. When the coast is rocky
S. australis is found nearer the sea than any other vegetation. The con-
ditions for life for these plants growing on rocks seem almost impossible,
for there appears tf> be neither soil nor water, except from the sea. Plants
350 Transactions.
^rowing on low rocks washed by the sea are found on the tops of them, the
action of the waves being too strong for them to get a footing at the base.
These plants have a stellate appearance, owing to the complete drying-
up of old branches, the new ones all arising from the base. The roots are
closely pressed against the rocks, and are matted together to collect any
particles of soil.
The stems of many plants growing on loose shingle are long, thick, and
woody, and are continued some distance below the surface, giving rise at
the nodes to thick, long, adventitious roots.
A curious feature is shown in some stems, especially in those on which
an inflorescence has been borne. The internode nearest the stem is
withered and brown, several adjoining it are green and succulent, then
again there are several brown and withered internodes, then either the suc-
culent apex or the withered remains of the inflorescence (see fig. 9, a).
Plants growing on rocks almost in the sea become red, and wither very
soon. The more exposed and drier, both physically and physiologically,
a situation is, the more is the plant inclined to turn red.
Colouring always begins in the internode at the base of a branch, and
proceeds upwards to the apex. The internode does not long remain
coloured, but soon turns brown ; thus there are never more than two or
three internodes on the same branch coloured at the same time. It would
seem that the plant turning red is an indication that the chlorenchyma
is about to disappear. This is further borne out by the fact that the coty-
ledons of the seedlings growing on a small salt meadow at Paremata turn
red before withering. That plants that die down early do not usually turn
red shows that the withering is not necessarily preceded by the plant
turning red. The red colouring is dissolved in the cell-sap, which gives
an acid reaction. It is therefore probably anthocyanin. It is purple in
reflected and red in transmitted light.
At Oriental feay S. australis grows on cliffs 40 ft. above the sea-level,
and with it large quantities of Mesembryanthemum australe and Aciphylla
squarrosa. It also grows at the edge of the water, but is not immersed
even at high tide, although in some other places it is.
At Napier the salt meadow covered with S. australis and plants men-
tioned above extends for several miles. This is one of the few extensive
salt meadows in New Zealand. Most of the meadow is in the process of
draining, so that each year it becomes drier. The whole meadow in autumn
has a reddish tinge. The finest specimens I found at the. edge of a lagoon
which receives each day fresh supplies of salt, and is sheltered by a shingle-
bank. The branches remain succulent for twelve months, and secondary
wood is well developed in them while still succulent. They are duller in
colour owing to a coating of wax. which serves to check transpiration.
These plants contain much salt, and remain succulent for a long time
when picked, showing that transpiration is greatly restricted, and that the
water tissue has not given up its water to the atmosphere, but to the
green tissues.
At Plimmerton, along the railway embankment, Salicornia forms a
thick mat several feet wide and extending for some 50 yards. In some
places the plants are very shrubby.
Salicornia australis is a frutescent or shrubby perennial. The stems
are upright or procumbent ; the usual height is 4-8 in. In a sheltered
position at the edge of a lagoon the plants are li— 2 ft. in height, and the
Cooke. — Observations on Salicornia australis.
351
brunches are very long and thick. Sometimes when the stems are pro-
cumbent they are as much as 3 ft. long, and give off adventitious roots
at the nodes. Short procumbent branches often become very thick and
woody, being sometimes over h in. in diameter. The young branches are
cylindrical, green, and succulent, owing to the succulent leaves and leaf-
bases which surround them.
The branching is opposite. In some plants the branches appear to be
given off from the main axis, just below the insertion of a branch. These
are, in the cases I examined, branches given off
from the lowest node of that branch, the node
being almost indistinguishable. Sometimes two
branches arise together, and are surrounded by
leaves (with only slightly developed bases), in
the form of a spiral (see fig. 9, c).
Intermediary 'S^p^
growing-point §&&
I
Leaf base ■
(2.) Structure.
Leaves.
Thomson, Cheeseman, Laing and Blackwell,
and Miss Cross, all following Sir Joseph Hooker,
describe Salicornia australis as " leafless," but I
find that as long as green tissue remains on the
plant leaves persist, and are short and connate
— the free portions like decussate scales. At the
apex they are only a few cells in thickness,
but lower down abundant water tissue is present.
The veins are not visible till a section is made.
It is the greatly developed leaf-base which forms
the " cortex " referred to by writers on Salicornia.
A longitudinal section of the growing-point
shows an apical cone surrounded by leaves. Those
near the apex have the base only slightly enlarged.
Apical growth of the leaves soon ceases, and inter-
calary growth takes place at the base, as in the
majority of leaves. This is recognizable by the
fact that all the mitotic nuclei are there. The
cells containing these nuclei are small and iso-
diametrical in shape (fig. 3, b). In leaves further
down the stem the mitotic nuclei are still observ-
able at the base. Thus this intercalary growing-
point proceeds downwards, and gives rise to all
the chlorenchyma, as well as all the water tissue
of the leaf-base.
Running down the middle of the dorsal surface
of the leaf is a white line, due to the absence of
chlorophyll in the underlying tissue. The lower
termination of the line marks off the free portion of the leaf from the
beginning of the leaf-base. As each whorl of leaves overlaps the bases
of the whorl above, the stem is never visible till the leaves have
fallen.
The dorsal surface of the leaf is concave, the ventral convex. The leaf-
margins are colourless, since, being only two cells in width, there is no
palisade tissue developed between the dorsal and ventral epidermis.
Fibro-vascular
bundle - -
Fig. 2. — Longitudinal sec-
tion of bud, X 1 6.
352
Transactions .
The vascular system is well developed. I found no bundle-sheath
present.
The following references show that the structure of the so-called cortex
is constant throughout the genus :■ —
Ganong (3, b) describes Salicornia herbacea as having " a branching,
succulent, practically leafless stem . . . possessing a compact stele
(with cortical system of bundles replacing those of abandoned leaves), thick
water-storing cortex.
Warming (2) says that in Salicornia ambigua the leaves stand out like
collars round the older parts of the branches, which are shrivelled and
thin, and in structure it differs little from Salicornia herbacea, described by
De Bary.
De Bary (1, b) says Salicornia herbacea has chlorophyll tissue in pali-
sade form in the cortex of the stem, and has short scaly leaves arranged
in decussate pairs.
Reasons for calling Leaf-base what appears to he and has been descnbed as
" Cortex ."
1. The vascular-bundle system in the cortex-like portion resembles
that of a leaf. The leaf-trace divides, the middle branch behaving nor-
mally : the two lateral branches are directed upwards for a short distance.
Pa Hsade tissue
Storm / Aqueous
~(~7\ tissue
Oennatoge)
Penblem
'Plervwe
Ftg. 3. — a, Longitudinal section of growing-point; b, c, x and y of fig. 2
under higher power.
and then run downwards in the aqueous tissue, anastomosing freely, and
forming a network. This position of the vascular bundles is comparable
to that in the basal portion of peltate leaves.
2. Except for the median branch, the network has no connection with
the stem.
|g| 3. The bundles end blindly in mesophyll.
?! 4. There is no difference between the palisade-cells in the leaf and leaf-
base, and there is no break in continuity, they being developed in both
on the ventral side.
Cooke. — Observations on SaJicornia australis. 353
5. The water tissue of the leaf-base (cortex) is in all parts similar to
the mesophyll of the leaf, when this does not consist of palisade-cells.
6. Below what I regard as the leaf-base the stem loses its palisade
tissue (see fig. 3, c). This is a very short portion of each internode, just
the part covered by the leaves of the next node below.
7. A longitudinal section through the growing-point shows the leaf-
base of the usual kind, with a very extensive growing-point (see fig. 2).
Cross-section of the internode before leaf-base disappears shows : —
(1.) Epidermis, a single layer of cells, the outer walls of which have
developed a cuticle.
(2.) Palisade parenchyma and scattered tracheides.
(3.) Aqueous tissue, the internal limit of which is the endodermis.
(4.) Portions of fibro-vascular bundles scattered about in the aqueous
tissue. These I regard as the vascular bundles of the leaf-bases.
(5.) Central cylinder or stele with a well-marked pericycle. This is
the only portion in this section which can be called " stem." In this are
embedded the collateral fibro-vascular bundles, which in this section are
seven in number.
Cross-section of stem below the leaf -base shows : —
(1.) A thin -walled epidermis of cells much smaller than those of the
leaf.
(2.) Hypodermis, two cells deep.
(3.) Cortex of thin- walled parenchymatous cells resembling those of
water tissue, only much smaller. Chloroplasts are few in number in com-
parison with those of the chlorenchyma in the leaf and leaf -base.
(4.) Central cylinder.
There is no cuticle, no stomata, no palisade tissue, no scattered
tracheides, and no fibro-vascular bundles except in central cylinder.
Epidermis of Leaf and Leaf -base.
The epidermis consists of a single layer of thin-walled cells whose outer
walls present cuticular thickenings. The cells of the dorsal differ con-
siderably from those of the ventral side of the leaf, the radial walls being
short and the tangential long. The outer wall is quite flat, and there are
no stomata. On the ventral side a longitudinal section shows the epidermal
cells have the vertical diameter about the width of the radial, and the outer
walls are raised into small papillae. Surface view shows that the cells
are — (a) hexagonal, with sharp corners ; (b) elongated transversely. This
transverse extension, according to De Bary (1, d), occurs only in the leaves
of several plants or in the stems when palisade tissue is developed in the
cortex. It occurs also in the leaves and leaf -bases of Salicornia australis.
The nucleus of epidermal cell is large, and when treated with alcohol turns
yellow and becomes very obvious.
As usual in the case of the epidermal cells, there are no chloroplasts
except in the guard-cells of the stomata. If, however, the plant is grown
under a bell jar, and is watered often, chloroplasts, few in number, may
be found in the epidermal cells. Under these conditions the epidermal
cells are not elongated transversely, and are wavy in outline.
The cells of the epidermis of the hypocotyl are very much longer than
they are wide, but the elongation this time is longitudinal. Cross-section
of hypocotyl shows a number of the epidermal cells dividing periclinally
(see fig. 4, e).
12— Trans.
354
Transactions.
Stomata. — vStomata are numerous on the ventral surface, but absent
on the dorsal. Development, as far as I have made out, takes place in
the usual way, and the first stomata are formed about the 4th leaf from
the apex. The guard-cells are long, and are comparatively narrow. Their
walls are thick, and at the top and bottom the thickened portion of the
wall bounding the pore projects in the form of a ridge. Midway between
these ridges the walls are not thickened, and when turgid jut out into the
pore, and thus facilitate its closing. The guard-cells are half the epidermal
cells in height, and are sunk beneath the epidermis, the inner walls being
in the same plane as the inner walls of the epidermal cells.
Warming (2) and Miss Cross (7) describe stomata as not being sunk.
[ found that they were sunk in every case, except in the cotyledons, which
are not referred to by either of these writers.
Stoma
Respiratory cavity
Aqueous
tissue
Scattered
tracheide
Aqueous tissue
Stele Aoueous tissue Chhrenchyma
Fibro-vascular
bundle
Epidermis .
Aqueous tissue
DTO
Fig. 4. — a, Transverse section of stem surrounded by leaf and leaf-bases; b, trans-
verse section of tracheides; c, longitudinal section of stoma at 9.30 a.m.;
d, longitudinal section of stoma at 6 p.m. ; e, transverse section of epidermis
of cotyledon, showing cells dividing.
If a longitudinal section of leaf or leaf-base is taken at the end of the
day, after transpiration has been going on freely, it is seen that the cells
which abut on the guard-cells curve over them. If a section is taken late
that night or early the next morning, these cells are no longer curved. Thus
when turgidity is reduced the cells curve over the stoma, and the amount
of transpiration is diminished (see fig. 4, c, d).
The stomata are situated above the palisade tissue. This is not usual
in ordinary leaves, but occurs in plants having much the same structure
as Salicornia. The guard-cells are at right angles to the axis of the
stem.
Cooke. — Observations' on Salicornia australis. 355
Aqueous Tissue. — The cells are large, thin-walled, and colourless, and
have a delicate lining of protoplasm. The nucleus is large and well marked,
and the remainder of the cell is filled with water.
In a plant whose cells have remained succulent all the winter the water
has much salt dissolved in it, and chloroplasts are found in the protoplasm.
Starch-grains are present, and are often aggregated round the periphery
of the nucleus.
In plants grown under a bell jar through the winter all the aqueous
tissue contained chloroplasts. It may be inferred that the aqueous tissue
is modified chlorenchymatous tissue.
Palisade tissue is developed on the ventral side of the leaf and leaf-
base. The tissue is two or three cells deep. The cells are thin-walled,
elongated at right angles to the epidermis, have rounded ends, and are
separated by numerous small intercellular spaces. Large intercellular
spaces, respiratory cavities, lie beneath the stomata.
Palisade-cells contain numerous chloroplasts, and, with the exception
of the guard-cells and aqueous tissue in the case mentioned above, they
are the only cells containing chlorophyll.
The chlorenchyma is interrupted at intervals by small patches of water
tissue two or three cells wide, and in these patches are sometimes found
the scattered tracheides.
Palisade tissue is not found in the stem itself.
A longitudinal section of the growing-point shows palisade tissue well
developed about the 6th or 8th leaf down. Further down it is to be seen
developing from an intercalary growing-point.
Scattered Tracheides. — These are present in the palisade tissue of both
leaf and leaf-base. Their length is perpendicular to the epidermis, but
they do not reach out to it, ending one short cell from it. There are a
number of these short palisade-cells, but they do not form a layer. The
other end of the tracheides abuts on the water tissue, but there is no con-
nection with the vascular bundles there. According to De Bary (1, c), these
tracheides occur close to one of the numerous air-cavities of the stomata.
1 also found them in the water-containing palisade tissue in the leaf, and
in such cases they were two or three cells from the epidermis. The tra-
cheides are cylindrical in shape, the ends being sometimes oblique. The
walls are thicker than those of the adjoining cells. Thickening takes the
form of a close fine delicate spiral. The function is that of air-storage.
Similar air-storing tracheides are referred to in Salicornia herbacea by
Ganong (3, a), and by Duval Jouve in Salicornia emerici (see fig. 4, a).
Apical Growth. — A longitudinal section through the apex of the stem
shows an apical cone surrounded by leaves. It appeared as if the opposite
character of the leaves was a secondary consideration, since the leaves
were at the very apex alternate. This was probably due to the twisting
of the young stem, since cross-sections did not bear out this theory.
The meristem at the apex is differentiated into three layers — (1) the
outer dermatogen. a layer of cells all the same size with mitotic nuclei ;
(2) periblem, two or three cells wide ; (3) plerome (see fig. 3, a).
There is a slight bulging in the apical cone where the next leaf will arise.
The leaves overarching the growing-point are wider at the apex ; the other
leaves taper to a point (see fig. 2).
There is a depression in the leaves on the lower side, and in this
depression the apex of the leaf next below lodges.
Stomata do not appear to be formed till the 4th leaf down.
12*
356
Transactions.
There is a clear indication that the leaf-trace bundles are sent inwards.
The Root. — The stele is diarch ; the bundles of phloem are quite distinct
and easily distinguished from the xylem. As in the majority of roots, the
medulla becomes obliterated.
In old roots the structure resembles that of the stems, in that secondary
xylem and phloem are developed from an extra-fascicular cambium. It
differs in that phloem islands in the root are slightly larger than those in
the stem, and the fibrous cells round them have thinner walls. The dis-
tinction between one season's growth and the next is more apparent.
A cross-section of the hypocotyl shows two groups of xylem which
converge to form, in the root, the plate, on each side of which is the phloem
group (see fig. 5, a).
The development of the root takes place as usual.
Seedlings have numerous long delicate hairs, the outline of which is
often crinkled and wavy. They present a curious resemblance to fungal
b
c
Xylem
Phloem
Phloem,
islands
Tracheae.
Xylem
Rootlet
Fig. 5. — a, Transverse section of root of an old plant; b, transverse section of young
branch, near tip ; c, transverse section of part of internal structure of root
of a seedling.
hyphae, and portions of them are often swollen, especially the tip. Some
of them are as much as 2 mm. in length, while the root is only 0-25 mm.
in diameter. They extend along the root, from just behind the growing-
point to the base of the hypocotyl.
Cotyledons. — Stomata occur on the upper and lower surfaces, and are
placed as in leaf and leaf-base, but are not sunk beneath the epidermis.
The guard-cells are short and wide, so that in surface view the stomata
appear circular.
Epidermis. — Surface view of epidermal cells shows that they are wavy
in outline. In a cross-section the radial walls are shorter than the tan-
gential, and the outer walls are flat. Seedlings grown in a greenhouse
showed chloroplasts, few in number, in some of the epidermal cells.
In cotyledons palisade tissue is developed beneath the upper epidermis
only.
Secondary Growth .
Stems of Salicornia increase greatly in thickness owing to secondary
growth, some of the older ones being | in. in diameter.
The cambium in the original collateral nbro-vascular bundles soon
becomes exhausted, causing the secondary phloem and xylem to have an
unusual origin. As a rule, with the exceptions noted below, interfascicular
cambium is not formed.
Cooke. — Observations on Salicornia australis.
357
A cross-section of a branch six months old shows just outside the phloem
a layer of cells divided usually by tangential and occasionally by radial
walls. Thus a complete extra-fascicular cambium ring is formed (see fig. 6).
This has been recorded by De Bary for Salicornia herbacea (1, e). The
xylem formed from this cambium consists of thick-walled fibrous cells,
among which are situated, in irregular rings, the vessels, with very large
lumens. The phloem consists of thin-walled cells, forming, as usual, a
cylinder outside the cambium. No sieve-tubes could be detected among
these cells, which in Salicornia amtralis always contain chlorophyll, and
are densely packed with starch-grains. Some of these cells disintegrate,
those remaining being arranged in radial rows, between which are large
intercellular spaces.
Endodenhjs
\Pericycle
\Cork cells
Phellogen
^7=fe^* — Pkelhderm
^^ *> Phloem2
t. cambium
Phloem island
Medulla
Fig. 6. — -Transverse section of stem, showing extra-fascicular cambium ring
(E. cambium).
In addition to the phloem cylinder, there are phloem islands scattered
about in the fibrous cells of the xylem, in each case lying just outside the
large vessels, from which they are separated by only a few fibrous cells.
A theory which might account for these phloem islands is this : The
formation of the large vessels consumes time ; while these are forming,
the cells each side of the group of vessels, growing more quickly, grow over,
enclosing a small patch of cambium. This gives rise to the phloem and
several small fibrous cells, the latter separating the phloem from the vessels.
The phloem islands consist of thin-walled cells, which show great
uniformity in length. When stained with saffranin they are easily
distinguished, since they turn an orange colour, the cells of the xylem
358
Transaction*.
turning red. Particles in the cells of the phloem islands exhibit Brownian
movements. The phloem islands were at first thought to be either phloem
or xylem parenchyma cells. Careful investigation showed that in some
cases undoubted sieve-tubes are present, although none were found in the
phloem cylinder. The walls of the sieve-tubes, as usual are thin and
colourless, and the sieve-plates slightly oblique. I could not with certainty
observe any pits in the sieve-plates, or any callus.
The Tracheae. — In this plant, as usual, the protoxylem vessels are
spiral, the spiral being here from right to left. The xylem of the leaf-traces
consists entirely of spiral vessels. In addition to these, there are the large
vessels mentioned above. In many cases they are observable in the course
of formation. They usually occur in groups of two or three, but there may
be as many as six. They are the only cells of the xylem which do not
Endodermis
. Pericycle
E. cambium
Phloem'
O. cambium
Xylem
parenchyma
Xylem
Medulla
I. cambium
Fig. 7. — Transverse section of stem, showing extra-faseiculav, interfascicular,
and original cambium.
contain starch. Their walls are greatly thickened and pitted, the pits
differing from the simple pits of fibrous cells, although in the walls of the
vessels bordering the fibrous cells they are simple. The pits differ from
ordinary bordered pits in that their walls, instead of being dome-shaped,
are perpendicular to the middle lamella (see fig. 8, a, b).
Fibrous Cells. — In this plant the secondary wood consists chiefly <>f
fibrous cells. These have greatlv thickened walls, and resemble woodv
fibres more or less closely in form. There is no stratification or striatic >n
observable. A few are septate. The fibrous cells always contain, abund-
ance of starch-grains, which are large and closely packed. In places a few
chloroplasts are present. The cells are all about the same length.
The nuclei are large, those of the adjoining cells being in a straight
line, showing there has been practically nq, displacement of the cells due
Cooke. — Observation* on Salicornia australis.
359
to elongation. There are numerous pits, simple, both in radial and oblique
walls.
As the cells always remain living, there is no differentiation into heart
and sap wood.
No sclerenchymatous fibres were found anywhere.
Medullary Rays. — Primary medullary rays are not continued through
the secondary wood, and, as a rule, no clearly distinguished secondarv
medullary rays are formed ; nor is there any necessity for them, seeing that
most of the xylem-cells are living and are connected by pits. Occasionally-
1 found a distinct medullary ray, the cells of which were elongated radially,
being three times as long as they were broad, and narrower than the fibrous
cells. There occur also a number of bands of cells one or two wide, the
cells having then radial diameters slightly longer than the tangential.
These resemble the medullary rays in Mahonia given by Schleiden, where
they are very thick-walled, and scarcely to be distinguished from the
fibrous cells of the wood. In Salicornia they are packed with starch-grains.
The result of this slight development of medullary rays is that they are
not observable in longitudinal section.
Cork ceils ?V^U°S^,'cUodcrr'1
Phloem?
6-.C Xylen-,2
Fibrous
cells Tracheal
Phloem island
Fig. 8. — a, Longitudinal section of stem of secondary growth; 6, pits in trachea;
r, longitudinal section showing periderm.
A cross-section of a branch which has remained succulent all the winter
shows not only the fascicular cambium dividing and increasing in size, but
cells are dividing between the bundles to form interfascicular cambium
(fig. 7). When the bundles are close to each other the dividing cells reach
right across, but when far apart the line of the dividing cells curves out-
wards and joins on to the extra -fasicular cambium, forming a complete ring
round the phloem.
The interfasicular cambium does not long remain functional, and the
majority of secondary tissues are formed from the extra-fascicular cambium
as usual.
The Formation of Cork.— As winter advances, as a rule, all the branches
formed in spring assume a different appearance. The succulent tissue
becomes withered and turns brown, the free portion of the leaves of each
internode surrounding the base of the internode above like a collar. This
360
Transactions.
brown portion finally falls off, or. if the plant is at the water's edge, is
soon washed off, .and the branches appear green again. They are, however,
much smaller, having lost all palisade and aqueous tissue. The green
colour is due to chloroplasts in the phelloderm and the phloem cylinder.
Chloroplasts are also present, although to a less extent, in the fibrous cells
of the wood and in the outer portion of the medulla. The development
of chlorophyll corresponds to that in several desert-plants mentioned by
Austin (9) (see fig. 8, c).
This withering of tissue is due to the formation of cork. The inner
layer of pericycle, which is now several cells thick, gives rise to phellogen.
Cork tissue and phelloderm are formed in the usual way. The phelloderm
in this plant even more than usual shows great uniformity in the length of
cells. Chloroplasts are present, and starch, which is never found to be
exhausted. The granules are larger than those of the phloem cylinder.
Flowers.
SaUcornia australis flowers from December to March. The flowers
are wind-pollinated. All the branches may be fertile, and bear small
Fig. 9. — a, Branch showing withered inflorescence, two-fifths natural size ; 6, flower-
ing-branch, two-fifths natural size ; c, bud, X 3 ; d, flowers, X 6 ; e, transverse
section of flower — (1) with one stamen, (2) with two; /. persistent perianth;
g, hooked hairs on testa ; h, pistil ; j, pollen-grain ; k, longitudinal section of
flowering- branch taken in July, five months before flowers are mature.
insignificant flowers at their apex ; these flowers are placed side by side in
the axils of the leaves, and form an almost complete ring. The leaf-bases
in the flowering-branches are developed only to a comparatively small
extent.
The number of flowers in each axil, as a rule, varies from five to ten ;
occasionally there are as many as sixteen, and then they form a double
row round the branch.
Cooke. — Observations on Salicornia australis. 361
The flowering-branches are thicker than the ordinary branches, and do
not taper to a point like those of Salicornia herbacea, shown by-Schimper
(4, a).
A very young flowering-shoot does not differ in appearance from an
ordinary one. When the internodes of the ordinary branch lengthen, the
difference becomes apparent, since those of the flowering-branch always
remain short.
If a longitudinal section is made (see fig. 9, k) the flowers are seen sessile
in the axils of the leaves. The section was made five months before the
plant flowers, and even then the perianth was little different from that
of a mature flower.
Flowers are hermaphrodite or polygamous. Several whorls of flowers
were examined in order to find some regular arrangement, but none was
observable.
An examination of a large number of flowers shows that the stamens
are usually two in number, occasionally one, rarely wanting the pistil of
one carpel.
The perianth is monochlamydeous, fleshy, broad, flat, and quadrangular
at the top. The lobes, three in number, fit together, almost closing the
mouth. On this quadrangular portion the epidermal cells are very thick-
walled and isodiametrical, and there are a number of stomata. Beneath
this lies a little chlorenchyma, and then the aqueous tissue. The flowers
are narrower at the immersed base, and the epidermis of the perianth here
is very thin-walled, and the cells are elongated longitudinally, as in the
hypocotyl.
When the seed is ripe the fleshy perianth persists, the cell-contents dis-
appear, and the cell-walls become thickened by regular bands which run
in different directions in different cells (see fig. 9. /), and the cells are filled
with air. This is evidently an adaptation for dispersal, for by means of this
persistent perianth the seeds float on the top of the water for a long time.
Seeds were placed in fresh water, and at the end of a week only 3 per cent,
of them had sunk. The perianth remains attached to the cotyledons even
when the seedling is several months old.
-
Androecium.
Stamens are perigynous, two or one, occasionally there is only one
staminode. In the young flower the filament is short, but it is later
elongated so that the stamen hangs out of the mouth. When there are
two fertile stamens they are protruded successively. There are two large
anther-lobes attached to the filament for about half their length. Develop-
ment takes place as usual. Each lobe consists of two compartments when
the anther is young but when mature of one only. Dehiscence is by a
longitudinal crack coinciding with the partition between the two pollen-
sacs. The pollen-grains are developed in the usual way. Each has a
thickened wall in which there are numerous round pits (see fig. 9, j).
Gynoecium.
Ovary is superior, of one carpel, and ovoid, containing one basal ana-
tropous ovule.
Styles, two in number, are papillose, long and narrow, and tapering
to a point.
362 Transactions.
Flower is protogytious, and the styles hang out of the mouth before
the stamens.
Utricle is ovoid, consisting of a thin loose pericarp enclosing the seed.
It is itself surrounded by the persistent perianth.
Testa is brown, coriaceous, and covered with hooked hairs of different
shapes (see fig. 9, g). The inner coat of the seed is thin and membranous.
There is no endosperm.
Embryo has thick fleshy cotyledons, and an incumbent, terete, radicle.
Bibliography.
1. De Bary. "Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of
Phanerogams and Ferns," 1884 — a. p. 45 ; b, p. 48 ; c, p. 226 ;
d, p. 31 ; e, p. 591.
2. Warming. " Halofyt-Studier," pp. 215, 216.
3. Ganong. " The Vegetation of the Bay of Fundy Salt and Diked
Marshes "—a, p. 357 ; b, p. 448.
4. Sckimper. " Plant Geography " — a, p. 654 ; b, p, 182 ; c, p. 652.
5. Cheesman. " Manual of New Zealand Flora," p. 585.
6. Schleiden. " Principles of Botany."
7 Miss Cross. " Observations on some New Zealand Halophytes."
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, p. 563.
8. Kerner and Oliver. " The Natural History of Plants."
9. Austin. " The Topography of Chlorophyll Apparatus in Desert Plants."
10. Harshberger. " Comparative Leaf-structure of the Sand-dune Plants."
11. Pehr Olsson Seffer. " Hydrodynamic Factors influencing Sandy Sea-
shores." " New Phytologist," vol. 8, 1909.
12. G. Hill. " Observations of the Osmotic Properties of Root Hairs of
certain Salt Marsh Plants." " New Phytologist," Nos. 6 and 7, 1908.
13. Laing and Blackwell. " Plants of New Zealand."
14. Hooker. " Handbook of New Zealand Flora."
15. Hooker. "Students' Flora of the British Isles," p. 341.
16. Warming. " Systematic Botany " ; translated by Potter.
17. Thomson. " Introductory Class-book of Botany."
18. Strasburgher. " Text-book of Botany."
Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. 363
Art. XXXVIII. — On a Collection of Mallophaga from the Kermadecs.
By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A.; D.Sc., Queensland University, Brisbane,
and Launcelot Harrison, Sydney.
Communicated by A. Hamilton.
[Read before the Wellington Philosojihical Society, 6th September, 1911.]
The material which forms the subject of this paper was collected by the
expedition of New Zealand naturalists which visited the Kermadec Islands
in 1907-8 under the guidance of Messrs. Tom Iredale and W. K. B.
Oliver. From the labels we judge that it was collected chiefly by Mr.
W. L. Wallace. It was forwarded by Mr. Oliver to the Dominion
Museum, Wellington, and the Curator of that institution, Mr. A. Hamil-
ton, has been kind enough to place it in our hands for description.
The Mallophaga collected comprise thirteen species from five bird hosts,
and one species from a mammal, the introduced domestic goat. To these
we have added two species taken by one of us from a skin of Oestrelata
neglecta Schl, forwarded by Mr. Oliver to Mr. A. F. Basset Hull, of
Sydney. As Mr. Iredale's notes (1910) mention about thirty species of
birds observed on the group, it is obvious that nothing like a complete
collection of the Mallophagan fauna was obtained.
Of the sixteen forms reviewed, we have described six as new species,
one as a new variety of a known form, eight have been ascribed to already
known species, and consideration of one species has been deferred.
List of Hosts, with Parasites.
Pelagodroma marina Lath.
Ancistrona procdlariae Westw.
Lipeurus languidus Kell. & Kuwana.
Lipeurus exiguus Kell. & Kuwana.
Oestrelata neglecta Schl.
Philopterus fuscoclypcatus nobis.
Lipeurus diversus Kellogg var. excavatus nobis.
Lipeurus Jcermadecensis nobis.
Charadrius dominions Mvill.
Philopterus ivallacei nobis.
Degeeriella oraria Kellogg.
Colpocephalum timidum Kellogg.
Numenius variegatus Scop.
Philopterus armatus nobis.
Philopterus numeniicola nobis.
Degeeriella oliveri nobis.
Sturnus vulgaris Linn.
Philopterus leontodon Nitzsch.
Degeeriella nebulosa Burmeister.
Menopon sp.
Capra hi reus Linn.
Trichodectes climax Nitzsch.
364 Transactions.
LlOTHEIDAE.
Menopon sp.
Among the parasites collected from the European starling (Stumus
vulgaris Linn.) are specimens of a Menopon similar to some which we have
ourselves collected from the same host in New South Wales, but which
do not agree with any Menopon described from the starling that we can
trace. As it seems somewhat improbable that what is apparently a
common parasite of an extremely common bird should have eluded obser-
vation, we have deferred consideration of this species until we are dealing
with our New South Wales material, in order to allow of a further search.
Colpocephalum timidum Kellogg (1896, p. 145, pi. 12, fig. 6).
One male and a few females from Charadrius dorninicus Mull. This
species has previously been taken by Kellogg from the same host in Kansas.
U.S.A., and also from Squatarola squatarola Linn, from California (1899,
p. 112). Kellogg gives the breadth of the female as 0-37 mm., which is
evidently a misprint, as our specimens measure from 0-58 mm. to 0-64 mm.
The male, which is apparently undescribed, resembles the female, with
the exception that the angles of the abdominal segments project a little
more prominently, and the last segment is more bluntly rounded. Length.
1-65 mm. ; breadth, 0-52 mm.
Ancistrona procellariae Westwood (1874, p. 197).
Syn.. Ancistrona gigas Piaget {1885, p. 117), Kellogg (1896, p. 150,
and 1899, p. 116).
One individual referable to the genus Ancistrona was found upon
Pelagodroma marina. Two species have been described under this genus ;
the type, A. procellariae. by Westwood from a Daption capense presented
by Messrs. E. Brown and Baird to the Hope Museum, Oxford. No locality
is given, but it may be assumed that the bird in question formed part
of an Antarctic collection, as Baird described parasites from Antarctica.
Piaget described a second species, A. gigas, from a Proeellaria collected
on the Barendts north polar expedition. We have a separate copy of
the paper containing his original description, but it bears no date, and no
indication as to the periodical in which it originally appeared, and we have
been unable to trace a reference to it in any bibliography of the group
accessible to us. The date may be fixed roughly as 1883-84, as the paper
in question follows immediately on another by the same author, criticizing
the " Die Mallophagen " of Taschenberg, which was published in 1882.
The original description is, however, reproduced verbatim by Piaget in his
Supplement (1885, p. 117), and this reference is given by Kellogg (1896.
p. 150 ; 1899, p. 116 ; 1908, p. 75) for the original account,
Piaget gives a detailed description of his type, but does not particularize
any characters by which it differs from A. procellariae Westwood, except
its larger size. His own words are, " L'espece se rapproche generique-
ment de 1' A. procellariae de M. Westwood, mais en differe specifiquement.
surtout par les dimensions. Seulement la description donnee par le
savant entomologue est trop sommaire pour permettre une comparaison
detaillee."
Westwood gives the length of his species as 2| lines (roughly, 5J mm.),
while Piaget gives his as 6 mm., so that the difference in size is only f mm
Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs.
365
in a length of 6 mm., which hardly justifies an assumption of specific differ-
ence. It seems to us possible that Piaget has read Westwood's measure-
ment as millimetres, not lines.
Westwood's description is short, and his figure poor, but there is
nothing in either to indicate a specific difference between the forms described
by him and by Piaget. The poorness of his figure may be accounted for
by the fact that Andstrona is very difficult to view satisfactorily under a
microscope, the variations in thickness being comparatively so large. As
a matter of fact, Piaget has fallen into error in his figure of the ventral
parts of the head, for he figures as a posterior production of the hind-head
what is really an anterior intercoxal production of the prothorax.
Kellogg (1896, p. 50 ; 1899, p. 116) obtained specimens of an Andstrona
from various petrels on the Californian coast of the North Pacific, which
he has referred to A. gigas Piaget.
Finally, the individual we have under review comes from the South
Pacific, and on that account might well be expected to agree with West-
wood's species rather than Piaget's, if the two were distinct. We find it
agrees with Piaget's description of A. gigas in all details except size, as
it measures only 4 mm.
We conclude from the foregoing that there is only one species so far
known in the genus, and we rank A. gigas Piaget as a synonym of A. pro-
ceUariae Westwood.
Philopteridae.
Lipeurus kermadecensis n. sp.
Description of Female. — Head subcorneal, elongate, narrower in front ;
anterior portion of clypeus obtusely rounded and transparent ; lateral
margins of forehead strongly chitinized, with narrow transverse interrup-
tions to roots of marginal hairs, and. continued as antennal
bands behind antennary fossa, ending internal to the eye ;
temples rounded, not distinctly wider than at trabecular
angles, without distinct bands ; occiput roundly emargin-
ate ; all the hind-head evenly chitinized, with transparent
interspaces from the antennary fossae meeting in the
middle line at about half the distance between the line
of the antennae and the occiput, and continuing to apex
of occipital emargination ; from each branch a lateral
interspace given off, passing posteriorly parallel with
temporal margins to occiput ; trabeculae practically absent ;
antennae with 1st and 2nd segments equal and longest,
5th next in size, 3rd and 4th smaller and about equal ;
3 marginal hairs on side of forehead, corresponding to
interruptions through the lateral band ; between the
anterior pair a dorsal and a ventral hair, internal to
lateral band ; small hair in front of trabecular angle,
and one at angle ; 4 or 5 small hairs round temporal Lipeurus kermadec-
lobe, that at temporal angle more prominent than the ensis. 0.
others ; 2 pairs of hairs on dorsal surface of forehead .
Prothorax approximately rectangular, broader than long, evenly chitin-
ized, slightly darker at antero-lateral margins, with a median interrup-
tion. Metathorax more than twice as long as prothorax, approximately
rectangular, anterior angles slightly truncated, lateral margins somewhat
Fig. 1.
366
Transactions.
compressed ; middle of posterior margin projecting slightly on to abdomen ;
evenly chitinized, mid-lateral parts more deeply coloured ; median inter-
ruption continuous with that of prothorax ; a long hair at posterior angle,
and inwards from it a group of 3 pustulated hairs.
Abdomen of 10 segments, narrow, elongate, sides subparallel ; gradually
increasing in width to 6th segment, then sharply tapering to 10th, which is
slightly bilobed ; all evenly chitinized, with median interruption as in
thorax extending through 8 segments ; 9th completely chitinized ; 10th
with chitinous lateral blotches ; 2 pairs of small hairs
on posterior margin of each segment, and a large pair
of ventral hairs, one on each side of the mid-line ; on
1st segment 6 other small hairs, 4 of which are near
anterior border ; one hair at posterior angle in seg-
ments 2 to 4 two in 5 and 6, three in 7th, one in
8th and 9th ; on segments 9 and 10 a pair of dorsal
hairs.
Length, 1-76 mm. ; breadth, 0-28 mm. Head, 0-44 mm.
by 0-28 "mm.
Three females taken by one of us from a skin of
Oestrelata neglecta Schl. forwarded to Mr. A. F. Basset
Hull, of Sydney. This species approximates closely to
Lipeurus limitatus Kellogg (1896, p. 124) from Pufpnus
griseus Gmel. from California, but differs in being little
more than half the size, in the shape of the prothorax,
in the median interruption of the abdomen being con- \^?
tinuous through 8 segments and not 7 only, and in the
disposition of the interruptions of the hind-head. The
male is unknown, as is the male of L. limitatus, Kellogg
also having collected females only.
\\
\%
W
t
. c-v'^
Lipeurus diversus var. excavatus var. nov.
This form is intermediate between L. augusticeps
Piaget (1880, p. 306) and L. diversus Kellogg (1896,
p. 123), approaching more closely to the latter. Our
form differs from Kellogg's species in having distinct
lateral bands on the margin of the clypeus.. in front of
the antennal bands ; occipital blotches slightly different
in arrangement ; bands of prothorax produced more
markedly on to metathorax, and not interrupted at
the suture ; hairs on posterior margin of metathorax
slightly different in arrangement, the second hair from
the angle being small, and not of almost equal length
with the others ; lateral bands of abdomen distinctly
broader, each produced anteriorly into a concavity in
posterior margin of that of preceding segment ; this
posterior margin with a clear diverticulum towards
lateral margin, the exact relations being best seen in the figure. The
sexual dimorphism agrees with that shown in Kellogg's figures of L. diversus,
but as the one male at our disposal has lost his antennae we are unable
to compare the males satisfactorily.
Several specimens from Oestrelata neglecta Schl. from Sunday Island.
We have figured a female.
Fig. 2.
Lipeurus diversus
var. excavatus. 0
Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. 367
Lipeurus languidus Kellogg and Kuwana (1902, p. 475, pi. 29, fig. 8).
Two females and one male of this species were taken from Pelago-
droma marina Lath. The species was originally described from Galapagos
Island, where it was taken from Oceanites gracilis and Procellaria tethys,
as well as on a number of other hosts to which it had obviously
straggled.
Lipeurus exiguus Kellogg and Kuwana (1902, p. 479, pi. 30, fig. 2).
One female from Pelagodroma marina Lath. The species was origin-
ally described from Oceanites gracilis from Galapagos.
Degeeriella oliveri n. sp.
A few males and one female of this species were collected from Numenius
variegatus Scop. The form resembles fairly closely D. actophilus of
Kellogg and Chapman (1899, p. 78) from Calidris arenaria Linn, from
California, and, in a less degree, D. inaequalis of Piaget (1880, p. 176)
from Numenius arquatus Linn, from Europe ; but differs
markedly in detail from either. From both the forms
mentioned our species differs in the proportionately greater
length of the head in front of the antennae, and also in
the relations of the chitinous framework of the clypeal
parts. The signature does not extend across the width of
the clypeus, as in Kellogg's figure of D. actophilus, and
its rounded posterior angle projects strongly into a clear
uncoloured space, which is thus not a transverse bar, but
a more or less horseshoe-shaped clear area. Dorsal to the
signature, the clypeal bands of either side are produced
as a deeply sinuous structure crossing the anterior margin
of the head.
From D. inaequalis, to which it approximates in size,
it is easily distinguishable from the fact that the sides
of the abdomen are convexly subparallel to the 6th
segment, and then taper somewhat to a broadly rounded
9th segment in the male, while Piaget's species has
the abdomen much swollen at the 4th and 5th segments,
and tapering considerably before and behind. Also, the Degeeriella oliveri
last segment of the abdomen in the female is barely <? .
notched, and not markedly bifid, as figured by Piaget.
From D. actophilus, besides the differences in the head region already
indicated, it may easily be distinguished by its greater size, 1-85 mm., as
against 1-6 mm.
We figure tho male, of which the measurements are : Length, 1-85 mm. ;
breadth, 0-37 mm. ; head, 0-49 mm. by 0-3 mm. The female differs
chiefly in the shape of the abdomen, the sides of the last two segments
converging abruptly, and meeting almost at right angles, with a slight
notch in the apex ; and in the generally lighter colour of the transverse
bands of the abdomen. It measures : Length, 1-88 mm. ; breadth,
0-44 mm.
We have named this species in tribute to Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, one
of the leaders of the expedition.
Fig. 3.
368 Transactions.
Degeeriella nebulosa Burmeister.
Nirmus nebulosus Burmeister, Denny (1842, p. 132, pi. 11, fig. 13).
A couple of individuals of this common parasite of the starling were
obtained from Sturnxs vulgaris Linn.
Piaget (1880; p. 155) wrongly credits Denny with being the author of
this species.
Degeeriella oraria Kellogg.
Nirmus orarius Kellogg (1896, p. 104, pi. 5. rig. 5).
Two females which we have referred to the above species were taken
upon Charadrius dominicus Mull. The species was described by Kellogg
from a single female taken from the same host in Kansas, U.S.A.. which
would seem to have been immature.
Our specimen agrees in general with Kellogg's description, but has
strong square blotches on the ventral surface of the abdomen, and small
dark median blotches on segments 3-7 on the dorsal surface, neither of
which are mentioned in Kellogg's description. In addition, a pair of
median hairs is found on all the segments, and not only on segments 3-6,
as figured ; there are 5 hairs on either side of the metathorax, not 4 ; and
the dimensions are somewhat greater, the length being T95 mm. as against
1-84 mm., and the breadth 0-47 mm. against 0-4 mm.
Philopterus leontodon Nitzsch (1818).
Docophorus leontodon Nitzsch, in Giebel (1874. p. 90, pi. 11, figs. 4, 7).
A solitary immature specimen of a Philopterus was taken from the intro-
duced European starling (Sturnus vulgaris Linn.), which has reached the
Kermadecs from New Zealand.
We have referred it to Nitzsch's species as the general form of the head
is similar to that of P. leontodon.
Philopterus fuscoclypeatus n. sp.
A single mutilated individual, which is almost certainly a female; of
this species was collected by one of us from a skin of Oestrelata neglecta Schl.
sent to Sydney. We have ventured to describe it, in
spite of its condition, as the structure of the fore part
of the head very clearly distinguishes it from any
Philopterus so far known.
Head broader than long ; temples evenly rounded,
and fore part of form of an equilateral triangle, with
anterior angle truncated ; from base of trabeculae sides
of forehead are perfectly straight to anterior clypeal
angles ; clypeus entirely brown, darker at sides, where
the antennal bands widen out, ending in a more or less
sinuous border extending from the anterior clypeal
angle, parallel to the long axis, back to the suture ;
anterior clypeal angles projecting slightly beyond the
anterior margin of the clypeus, which is almost straight,
there being only a slight median depression ; clypeus
wholly chitinized, with no clear margins or spaces, P^1Z ■ $?°"
with hind margin passing almost straight across the
head, curving slightly back on to the centre of the clear space in front
of mandibles ; laterally the hind margin curves round to join the antennal
Johnston and Harbison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. 369
bands, and in each lateral curve is a small tubercle : in front of mandibles,
and internal to lateral bands, a more or less oblong uncoloured space, con-
taining in its centre a dark oblong blotch with serrated lateral margins :
trabeculae fairly strong, coloured, and extending to 2nd segment of antennae ;
on dorsal surface, at base of trabeculae, an acutely conical process set in a
papilla, resembling those found in Giebelia; antennae short, slightly bent
from 2nd segment, with 1st segment longest, then 2nd. then 5th ; 3rd and 4th
equal and shorter ; eye not prominent, with bristle ; occipital bands strong,
very slightly converging from the anterior angles of the prothorax to the base
of the mandibles ; temples dark, mammi Hated, with at least 2 pustulated
hairs about angles ; occipital signature conical, the apex meeting a second
larger cone, with its base along the articulations of the mandibles ; between
these and the occipital bands, subtriangular uncoloured spaces ; hind
margin slightly sinuous, projecting a little on to prothorax ; oesophageal
sclerite and glands fairly conspicuous (in cleared specimen) ; few hairs
are observable ; beyond the pustulated hairs already mentioned only a
short hair at trabecular angle and a stout spine behind the eye can be made
out, but the hairs may easily have been abraded off the specimen.
Prothorax half as long as head, and seven-tenths as wide ; with
slightly convex posterior margin ; angles rounded, and sides converging
anteriorly ; lateral areas brown, with median uncoloured space ; apparently
1 spine and 1 small pustulated hair in posterior angle. Metathorax about
half as long as prothorax, and wider, with sides convexly diverging from
in front to prominent postero-lateral angles, thence curving to an almost
straight hind margin ; a spine and a hair in postero-lateral angle ; and
apparently a couple of pustulated hairs on either side on hind margin ;
latter with a strong brown band on its free portion ; all, except a median
uncoloured line, of uniform brown colour ; sternal markings of two pairs
of very strong intercoxal lines, the posterior pair forming T-shaped struc-
tures with lateral lines external to the coxae.
Abdomen of 9 segments, orbicular,, widest at 4th segment, and with
last segment small and apparently bifid ; the first 7 segments with
triangular lateral blotches, elongated inwards ; blotches of 8th segment
quadrilateral ; 9th with only small suffused blotch ; 1 to 3 pustulated
hairs in posterior angles of segments, and a few hairs along hind margins,
as well as several on the uncoloured space in centre of abdomen : but no
accurate description of the number and disposition of hairs is possible,
owing to the condition of the specimen ; on the ventral surface, small
blotches corresponding in shape to those of segment 8 ; no genitalia observ-
able-
Total length, 1-38 mm. ; breadth, 0-60 mm. ; head, 0-42 mm. by 0-50 mm.
It is unfortunate that we have not at our disposal better material of
this species, which we have included in the genus Philopterus, but which
presents some affinities with Giebelia. From this genus, however, it is
clearly marked off by the uniform chitinization of the dorsal surface of
the clypeus, and the absence of the ventral membranous flap. When
more material is available it may be necessary to make the species the type
of a new genus.
Philopterus wallacei n. sp.
This species has the general form and characters of Philopterus fulicji-
nosus Kellogg (1896, p. 80) from Charadrius squatarola, but differs in the
following points: Length is 1-67 mm. against 1-62 mm., breadth 0-95 mm.
370
Transactions .
Fig. 5.
Philopterus wattacei.
Fig. 6.
I'hilopterus wallact I.
Ventral.
against 0-65 mm., so that, besides being slightly longer, it is proportionately
much, broader. Head measurements are 0-76 mm. by 0-72 mm., as against
0-60 mm. by 0-53 mm. Antennal bands are produced inwards further,
and end in a rounded posterior
prolongation. The narrow bands
on the hind margins of the first
six terga are more distinct than
those indicated in Kellogg's figure
of P. fuliginous, and, moreover,
are only very narrowly inter-
rupted medianly. The lateral
blotches on the final segment
of the abdomen are not so pro-
nounced, nor is the abdomen so
distinctly turbinated. There are
also a few minor differences in
the number and arrangement of
hairs
We have figured the disposi-
tion of the chitinous markings
on the ventral surface of the
abdomen, as well as the genital
apparatus, which is extraordi-
narily large and complex, and continues through six abodminal segments,
as in P. fulkjinosus.
One male from Charadrius dominicus Mull. We have named the
species in compliment to Mr. W. L. Wallace, to whom its discovery is due.
Philopterus armatus n. sp.
Females of two species of the genus PhilojAerus were taken from
Numenius variegatus Scop., both of the fuliginosus type, and closely allied
to one another. They are easily distinguishable, however, the present
species being larger, and having the head broader in proportion (as well as
different in the disposition of markings), than the next described species.
Two males were also collected which we take to belong to this species.
Description of Female. — Head a seventh broader than long, truncate,
with obtusely rounded anterior angles, concave sides to the trabeculae,
and much swollen temporal lobes ; hind margin sinuous, with central
rounded projection on to prothorax ; clear brown, with the strong
mandibles, antennal bands, and acuminate point of signature much
darker. Clypeus with narrow lateral bands, clear anterior margin, dis-
tinct suture, and an evenly chitinized signature, parallel to the anterior
and lateral margins, with semicircular posterior margin, and strongly
projecting posterior acuminate joint, rising from just inside hind margin.
Antennal bands strong, ending in a rounded enlargement at the antennary
fossa ; internal to antennal bands, 2 strong bent bands rise from the arti-
culating process for the mandibles, curving strongly to pass round the
anterior ends of the antennal bands, thence running straight to the anterior
ends of the clypeal bands, just posterior to the clypeal angles ; in the
curve of these bands, on either side, a strong chitinous blotch ; trabeculae
light in colour, reaching to the middle of 2nd segment of antenna ; antennae
light, with short stout 1st joint, 2nd longest, 3rd and 5th equal and shorter.
4th shorter still ; eye fairly prominent, clear outwardly, with a pigment
Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. -MV
spot ou inner margin, with two bristles ; before and behind eye a narrow
marginal band ; occipital bands practically absent, being indicated only by
the inner margins of the even-coloured temporal lobes ; 6 hairs in front of
trabecula, and a very short bristle on its base ; 2 pairs of hairs on dorsal sur-
face in front of mandibles ; 2 hairs with a short spine between at temporal
angles, and 2 spines external o pro thorax on either side of hind margin.
Prothorax projecting under occiput, with slightly diverging sides,
rounded angles, then converging sides to short, straight hind margin.
Fig. 7.
Philopterus armatus. j
Fig. 8.
Philopterus (intuitu*.
Ventral. 3 .
W
Fig. 9.
Philopterus armatus.
Fig. 10.
Philopterus armatus
Ventral. ? .
Where the converging sides meet the straight margin are two little folds
in the chitinous border. A single hair in the angle. A fairly strong
lateral band extending along more than one-third of hind margin. Meta-
thorax convexly divergent to a truncated postero-lateral angle, with 3
strong hairs ; hind margin obtusely rounded, strongly projecting on to
abdomen, with a series of about 20 pustulated hairs, in addition to the
6 already mentioned ; with short dark antero-lateral bands.
372
Transactions
Abdomen of 9 segments, elongate -oval., with strong lateral bands to
first seven segments; transverse bands of 1st segment meeting in the
middle line ; of 8th segment continuous ; of segments 2-7 short extending
irom two-fifths to one-quarter across width of abdomen, and leaving a
large clean central area ; segment 9 very short, and slightly bifid with
small dark oval blotch in either lobe ; each segment, except the last with
a series of pustulated hairs along the hind margins of the transverse bands
in the anterior segments embraced in serrations of the bands themselves'
but becoming removed from the bands as we proceed posteriorly, so that
the hind margin of the band of segment 6 is only slightly serrated while
that of segment 7 is entire ; posterior end of lateral band of segment 2
forms a strong spinous projection, and there is a
similar but less prominent projection in segment 3 ;
1 to 3 hairs in posterior angles of segments 3 to
8 ; segment 9 with a prickle on either lobe. Genital
blotch prominent, and best understood by reference
to the figure.
Length, 2-42 mm. ; breadth, 1-05 mm. ; head
0-74 mm. by 0-84 mm.
Description of Male. — Generally smaller and
darker than female, with golden-brown head and
dark-brown abdomen ; head not so wide in pro-
portion as that of female, but with the same
markings, except that the two small markings in
the curve of the inner antennal band are absent ;
marginal bands of prothorax stronger ; abdomen
pyriform, widest at 3rd and 4th segments, thence
abruptly tapering to a longer 9th segment, with
obtusely rounded angles, and an almost flat hind
margin ; segments 2 to 7 with very strong lateral
bands of blackish brown ; posterior angles of
segment 1 rounded under segment 2; of segments
2-5 strongly projecting, segment 3 especially so,
with a strong spine ; chitinous parts of segment 9
standing out dorsally as a flattened semicircular
prominence, the lateral borders of which are inside
the actual margin of the segment ; with 2 strong
lateral blotches, connected by a narrow line alono-
the hind margin, and much broken by large
pustules, bearing hairs, about 20 in all ; transverse
bands of segment 1 meeting mesially, and of the
remaining segments separated by a narrow median
line ; hind margin of segments 2 to 6 bordered by
a narrow dark line, hardly interrupted mesially ;
-.•nitalia complex, generally resembling those of
P. wallacei, but differing in being partly obscured on the ventral side by a
striated chitinous supporting plate and in the narrower chitinous bands '
Length, 1-98 mm. ; breadth, 0-91 mm. Head: Length, 0-67 mm ■
breadth, 0-69 mm.
Philopterus numeniicola ». sp.
Two females from Numenius variegatus Scop. This speci-s bears a
strong general resemblance to the last, but is smaller, the head is longer
Fig. 11.
Ph ilopterus numeniicola .
Fig. 12.
erua numeniicola.
Ventral.
Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. 373
and narrower, the prothorax different in shape, and there are other minor
differences.
Description of Female. — Head longer than broad, with elongate con-
cave-sided clypeus, evenly rounded temporal lobes, and slightly concave
hind margin, with very small median rounded projection on to prothorax ;
markings much the same as in the last species, save that the suture is much
more distinct, the acuminate point of the signature is forked anteriorly,
the inner antennal bands do not reach so far forward, and the occipital
bands are well defined ; prothorax with sides converging anteriorly, and
hind margin slightly convex ; metathorax with postero-lateral angles not
truncated, but acute, and with deeper and more angulated projection On
to abdomen ; hind margin with about 20 pustulated hairs, not 26.
Abdomen more roundly oval, with last segments not so much pro-
duced ; transverse bands not so distinctly angulated at apex, and
produced further inwards, leaving a much smaller clear space ; the
pustulated hairs of the segments generally fewer in number, ranging
from 6 on segment I, through from 12 to 14 on the intervening
segments, to 4 on segment 7 ; 1 to 3 hairs in the posterior angles,
except the first, which is without hairs ; genital blotch closely resembling
that of the last species, and more easily compared on reference to the
figures.
Length, 1-97 mm. ; breadth, 0-91 mm. ; head, 0-66 mm. by 0-60 mm.
Trichodectidae.
Trichodectes climax Nitzsch, in Giebel (1874, p. 58, pi. 20, fig. 2).
Many specimens of both sexes were obtained from the introduced
domestic goat (Cwpra hircus Linn.).
The types of the new species and variety described in this paper are
deposited in the Dominion Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. Where
there has been sufficient material, cotypes have been retained in our own
collection.
All the figures in this article have been drawn with a camera lucida,
and have been equally magnified.
Literature List.
1842. Denny. :" Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae." London.
1910. Ireda'le. " Bird Life on the Kermadec Islands." " The Emu,"
vol. 10, pp. 2-16.
1896. Kellogg. " New Mallophaga," vol. 1. (Contributions to Biology
from the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, iv.) Palo Alto, Cal.
1899. Kellogg and Chapman. " New Mallophaga," vol. 3. (Contributions
to Biology from the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory," xix). San Francisco.
1092. Kellogg and Kuwana. " Mallophaga from Birds of Galapagos."
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 4, p. 457.
1908. Kellogg. Mallophaga in Wytsman's " Genera Insectorum. "
Brussels.
1874. Nitzsch. In Giebel, " Insecta Epizoa." Leipzig.
1880. Piaget. " Les Pediculines, Essai Monographique." Leyden.
1885. Supplement. Leyden.
1874. Westwood. " Thesaurus entomologicus oxoniensis."
374 Transactions.
Art. XXXIX. — Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata Sowerby.
By A. J. Cottrell, M.A., M.Sc. (N.Z.).
Communicated by Professor Benham.
[Bead before the (Hugo Institute, 3rd October, 1911.]
In a previous paper (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, 1911, p. 582) 1 described
the general anatomy of Siphonaria obliquata, the common limpet-like
marine Gastropod, whose affinities are still undecided ; for, while some
authorities incline to the view that it is a modified Opisthobranch, others,
and perhaps the majority, regard it as a Pulmonate. I now supplement
that article by giving here an account of the vascular system, which was
omitted purposely from that paper.
The adaptation of Siphonaria to a life along the sea-shore, where at
times it is below water, at other times above, is well illustrated by its
'* dipnoan " character, having, that is, both a lung and a gill, each with
its own independent blood-supply. If, as seems the more probable, it is
a Pulmonate which has left its terrestrial home and ventured back into
the original habitat of the Gastropod molluscs, we must look on the gill
as a new structure, analogous to those of such forms as the Prosobranch,
Patella, (limpets), and the Opisthobranch, Pleurophyllidia , which has arisen
in relation to this new mode of life — that is, it is an " adaptive " gill, as
in these forms. Its structure is not that of a typical ctenidium, as I
pointed out in my previous article, though it has some resemblance to
certain gills amongst the Opisthobranchs. We already know a few Pul-
monates which have taken to an aquatic life in which a gill is present.
Thus, in Isidora, Protancylus, and others there is a single-folded lamina ;
but in Siphonaria, as I have described it in my previous article (p. 585),
there is a series of independent laminae arranged in a semicircle round the
mantle-cavity, each lamina bearing secondary laminae, so that it is much
more complex than the gill in the above Pulmonates.
Lang regards these pulmonate gills as probably ctenidia, though Pel-
seneer and others hold them to be " adaptive " gills. On the other hand,
supposing that Siphonaria is an Opisthobranch which has come able
to remain out of water for a considerable portion of each day, and to
breathe air during this period, we must suppose that it is the lung that
is the new thing ; and although, so far as 1 am aware, no Opisthobranch
has been found to have a lung, yet amongst the Prosobranchs several
genera, belonging to different families, have developed a network of blood-
vessels on the mantle-roof ; so that the cavity acts as a lung, and the
genera can be arranged in series, in which the ctenidium gradually decreases
in size and importance till it remains as a mere vestige (as in Cerithidea).
Hence, whatever view is taken as to the affinities of Siphonaria, it
remains an extremely interesting form to biologists, having either an
adaptive lung or an adaptive gill.
The Heart.
The heart lies in the pericardium on the left side of the dorsal surface
of the body, just in front of the middle of the length. The position of
the heart, as seen in the animal after the shell has been removed, is shown
in fig. 7 of plate 28 of my former article. The walls of the pericardium
Cottbhll .—Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata.
375
are formed by a thin tough transparent membrane ^e heart as usual.
Ttwo Xrnbered, the ventricle being situated to the left of the auricle,
sZex pointing to the left and downwards while the auricle lies
almost horizontally and transversely to the body. The walls of the
auricle are thin, transparent, and extremely delicate. When this chamber
fsdi tended with blood the bluish tinge of the latter may be noticed,
Fig. 1.
due to the presence of the respiratory pigment haemocyaiiincharac^r-
istic of the respiratory fluid of Mollusca and Arthropoda. In this cos
tended condition the auricle is of a more or less cylindrical tape the
long axis being transverse to the body. Two large veins discharge blood
!? this chamber, uniting just as they reach it. . From he aun dett.
blood or haemolymph passes between the two auriculo-ventricular valves
into the ventricle. Owing to the fact that it possesses thicker walls the
376
Transactions.
ventricle is of more definite and constant shape than the auricle ; from
above it is broad at the auricular end and tapers to the other extremity,
where it ends in a blunt point. After removal of the auricle the valves
can be seen partly open, leaving the silt-like orifice through which the
blood passes to the ventricle. When the ventricle contracts, the lips of
these valves come together and close the passage. This action can be
well seen by filling the chamber with water and gently squeezing it. The
walls of the ventricle are stout and muscular, and from the exterior can be
seen the multitude of muscular fibres running in varying directions in
them. Most of the fibres converge on a stout ring formed round the exit
of the aorta ; their other ends, often branched, are attached to the walls.
Arteries.
The aorta leaves the ventricle near the middle of its ventral side, and,
piercing the pericardial wall, to which it is firmly attached, takes a course
almost directly transversely towards the
right and a little backwards, passing be-
tween the anterior lobes of the digestive
gland till it reaches the intestine. At this
point it bifurcates, giving rise to the cepha-
lic aorta (fig. 1, c.a.), supplying the anterior
region of the body, and the visceral aorta
(r.a.), supplying the posterior organs. This
passes backwards among the lobes of the
digestive gland, and divides into three main
branches, which carry blood to that organ, Q^a |^
to the hermaphrodite gland, intestine, and
posterior end of the stomach. For the pur-
pose of studying the distribution of the
arteries I injected coloured " starch injec-
tion " into the ventricle, and was successful
in obtaining a beautiful preparation showing
even the smaller branches, but could not
afi'ord time, nor did I consider it worth
while, to work out the distribution of the
visceral aorta in further detail.
The cephalic aorta passes to the right
over the dorsal surface of the viscera, and
comes in contact with the body-wall (i.e.,
the floor of the pallia] chamber) just below
the kidney. Continuing its course to the
fight, it curves forwards till it reaches the
spermothecal duct, in front of which it Arteries on the ventral aide of
passes downwards and forwards on to the stomach; 4. b.a., superior
floor of the body -cavity. Just before reach-
ing this point it gives off the genital artery
(gn.a.), which, passing backwards, supported
by a thin membrane, gives rise to the vessels
of the spermotheca and genital duct. The cephalic aorta now runs forwards
for a short distance on the floor of the body-cavity, and after giving off
a vessel (w.a.) which disappears into the muscles of the right body-wall
and foot it turns to the left and reaches the nerve-collar, through which
it passes below the oesophagus.
Fig. 2.
buccal artery : g.b.a., gastro-
buccal artery; g.a., gastric
artery ; oc, oesophagus ; st.,
stomach.
Cottrell. — Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata.
377
sa
A little before reaching this point the cephalic aorta gives rise to a
huge branch — the gastro-buccal artery (g.b.a.), which passes to the left
along the floor of the body-cavity, reaching the stomach on the ventral
surface a little behind the point where
the oesophagus (fig. 2) enters. Here
it an once bifurcates, one branch —
the superior buccal artery (b.a.) — going-
forwards to the buccal mass, and the
other — the gastric artery {g.a.) — back-
wards along the ventral wall of the
stomach.
The superior buccal artery passes
forwards as a large vessel along the
left latero-ventral side of the oeso-
phagus, and turns up with the latter
on to the dorsal surface of the buccal
mass, giving off small vessels to the
oesophagus on the way. On reaching
a point a little behind the buccal
ganglia it bifurcates into right and
left branches, A and B respectively
Fig. 3.
Arteries supplying the dorsal surface of
buccal mass ; / about 4. A, right
branch of buccal artery, which passes
below the oesophagus ; B, left branch
of buccal artery ; b.g., buccal ganglion : (fig. 3). Branch A passes under the
b.a., superior buccal artery ; r.s., end of oggopWus to the right side, and gives
ra dular sac : s.a., right salivary art erv ; ~. *, , • , i- ,-,
s., salivary gland ; L, oesophagus. ' °$ *he artery which supplies the
salivary gland. It then passes on to
the latero-dorsal surface of the oesophagus and sends out a branch to the
right buccal ganglion. These ganglia are well supplied with blood-vessels,
and when the latter are well injected appear to be encased in an envelope
of small arteries. An artery
also runs on to the commis-
sure connecting these ganglia.
Beyond this point branch A
passes to the anterior end of
oesophagus, and finally dips
into the anterior muscles of
the buccal mass. Branch B
of the superior buccal artery
has a similar distribution on
the left side.
Thus this branch of the
gastro - buccal artery, which
I have called the superior Arteries on the floor of the body supplying the head
buccal, to distinguish it from
another vessel (the inferior
buccal artery), supplies the
oesophagus, salivary glands,
buccal ganglia, and some of
the dorsal muscles of the
buccal mass.
and foot, as seen when the buccal mass is severed ;
X 2. A, B, and C, the three, main arteries supply-
ing the head ; B is the inferior buccal artery, and
is cut short ; cm., cephalic aorta (which is much
swollen at the point where it branches as it passes
between the pedal ganglia); g.b.a., gastro-buccal
artery; in., mouth (buccal mass being removed);
p.a., penial artery ; pd.a., pedal artery ; pd.g.,
pedal ganglion.
The gastric artery (fig. 2)
a backward course on the ventral side of the stomach, giving off
branches to the ventral surface of the stomach ; the extreme posterior of
this organ, however, is supplied by a branch of the visceral aorta.
378 Transactions.
Returning to the cephalic aorta, which we traced above as far as
the nerve-collar, we find that as it passes between the pedal ganglia it
breaks up into a number of large vessels, some of which run forwards
on the floor of the body-cavity, supplying the organs and walls of this
region, and some pass backwards, supplying the foot (fig. 1).
Running forwards we have three main arteries — A, B, C (fig. 4).
The first of these, A, supplies the ventral wall of the head, penis, and
muscles round the mouth. It would appear from Captain Button's figure
that the penial artery was mistaken by him for the vas deferens.*
B, which I term the inferior buccal artery, arises to the left of A,
goes directly into the buccal mass on its ventral side, and supplies
almost the whole of this organ. To the left of B again is the branch
C, which is the largest of the three : very near its origin it bifurcates
into right and left branches, the latter corresponding to A of the right
side. The right branch runs forwards for a short distance, where it
bifurcates, the rami entering the muscular ventral wall of the head.
Running backwards from the cephalic aorta at this point are two
large arteries, right and left, which disappear among the muscles of the
foot (pd.a.).
Veins.
The distribution of the veins is illustrated in my previous article
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pi. 28, fig. 7, and pi. 29, fig. 2).
In the foot and body-walls are numerous large blood-vessels or
spaces, and into these, as far as I have been able to make out, most of
the blood eventually makes its way. Part of this blood is collected by
a large vein which runs vertically up in the left body-wall near the end
of the gill ; on reaching the dorsal surface it bifurcates, one branch
— posterior renal vein — being distributed to the kidney, and the other —
the afferent branchial vein — running round the posterior border of the
gill, and distributing blood to the gill-lamellae.
Near the respiratory orifice it gives off a large branch — the anterior
renal vein — which runs between the gill-lamellae on to the kidney close
to the renal papilla, a process of which surrounds the vessel between its
origin and the kidney. This vessel has been figured lightly, as it lies
deeper than the other vessels, and its reference-line has been misplaced
in the figure (vol. 43, pi. 28, fig. 7). Connected with the afferent
branchial vein along its whole length there are a large number of pallia]
vessels. The blood passes from this vein through the gill, where it is
aerated, into the efferent branchial vein, which runs round the anterior
margin of the gill. This vein returns blood to the auricle partly by a
vein, leaving it half-way along the gill and crossing the kidney, from
which it receives several small vessels, and partly by the efferent
pulmonary vein, which it joins at the right end of the gill. This latter
vessel receives blood from the efferent vessels of the lung and enters the
auricle together with the efferent vessel crossing the kidney.
Another large vein receiving blood from the body generally is the
afferent pulmonary vein, which emerges from the body-wall just in front
of the pericardium, and runs round the anterior margin of the lung, giving
rise to the afferent vessels of the lung. The blood passes through these.
and reaches the efferent vessels, which carry it to the efferent pulmonary
Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 15, pi. 17. fig. B, c.
Cottrrll. — Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata. 379
vessel, and so to the auricle. There is thus always arterial or aerated
blood in the heart, and purification of the blood is effected in the mantle,
which is everywhere very vascular, as well as in the two respiratory
organs connected with it.
For the purpose of tracing out the blood-vessels I injected from the
heart backwards and forwards. From the auricle I injected backwards
' berlin blue " very successfully into the vessels of the gills, lungs, and
kidney ; and forwards through the ventricle I tried Parker's " starch
injection ': and " glycerine carmine " : the former gave me the most
satisfactory results.
Art. XL. — Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Coleoptera.
By Major T. Broun, F.E.S.
[Bead before the Auckland Institute, 22nd November, 1910.]
In the following list the names and numbers (3157-3163) of new species
of Byrrhidae recorded in Bulletin No. 2 of the New Zealand Institute
are prefixed so as to succeed the last number in Bulletin No. 1. This
was necessary to make the numbering consecutive, and to prevent these
species being overlooked.
Within the present year (1910) descriptions of seven new genera and
189 species of New Zealand beetles have been prepared. To these are
added, in their proper places, eight species of Pselaphidae published in
the German language by Herr Reitter, of Vienna.
This unexpectedly large addition, to a great extent, is the result
of explorations of different peaks of the Tararua Range by Messrs.
A. O'Connor and H. W. Simmonds, of Wellington, and of portions of
the Southern Alps by Mr. H. Hamilton, also a resident of that city.
Mr. W. L. Wallace, of Timaru, during the unfavourable part of the
collecting season managed to secure several new species on the Kaikoura
Range. Various localities near the elevated Waimarino Plateau, owing
chiefly to the assistance rendered by Mr. W. J. Guinness, yielded about
a third of the total number collected during the year. In all cases
credit is given, in the descriptive part of this paper, to every individual
who helped to produce the general result.
The foregoing remarks incontestably prove that our knowledge of the
insect fauna of the higher altitudes is very imperfect, notwithstanding
the fact that 3,360 species of Coleoptera have been found in New Zea-
land. It may also be stated that a considerable proportion of these
alpine beetles are exponents of distinct genera, and, as a rule, are finer
or more interesting than those of corresponding groups procured on the
lowlands.
Of Stewart Island we know scarcely anything entomologically, only
one species, so far as I can remember, having been described from that
region, which, if carefully searched, will probably yield some forms more
or less allied to those obtained by the members of the recent expedition
to the subantarctic islands.
380
Transactions.
List of New Geneba and Species.
Group Byrrhidae.
3157. Synorthus mandibularis Broun.
3158. ,, laevigatus Broun.
3159. ,, pygmaeus Broun.
3160. Pedilophorus foveigerus Broun.
3161. ., sculpturatus Broun.
31(32. .. cognatus Broun.
3163. ., bryobius Broun.
Group Cnemacanthidae.
3164. Mecodema o'connori Broun.
3165. „ bryobium Broun.
3166. „ laevicolle Broun.
3167. ,, quoinense Broun.
3168. „ arcuatum Broun.
Group Anchomenidae.
3169. Ctenognathus simmondsi Broun.
31 70. Tarastethus amplipennis Broun.
3171. „ phyllocharis Broun.
3172. „ lewisi Broun.
3173. ,, cordipenrris Broun.
Group Pogonidae.
3174. Oopterus laevigatus Broun.
Group Peronidae.
3175. Trichosternus wallacei Broun.
3176. Pterostichus hamiltoni Broun.
Group Anisodactylidae.
3177. Allocinopus smithi Broun.
3178. ,, castaneus Broun.
3179. „ angustulus Broun.
3180. Zabronothus major Broun.
3181. ,, aphelus Broun.
Group Aleocharidae.
3182. Aphytopus porosus Broun.
3183. ,, granifer Broun.
3184. „ guinnessi Broun.
3185. Calodera wallacei Broun.
3186. „ fultoui Broun.
3187. Myrmecopora funesta Broun.
3188. „ granulata Broun.
Group Staphylinidae.
3189. Quedius eruensis Broun.
3190. „ xenophaenus Broun.
Group Pederidae.
3191. Lithocharis longipennia Broun.
3192. Dimerus wbitehorni Broun.
Group Osorhdae.
3193. Holotroohue setigerus Broun.
Group Oyxtelidae.
3194. Bledius bidentifrons Broun.
Group PSELAPHIDAE.
3195. Sagola monticola Broun.
3196. Euglyptus foveicollis Broun.
3197. „ longicomis Broun.
3198. Eupleetopsis longicollis Reitter.
3199. ,, macrocephalus Reitter
3200. „ brevicollis Reitter.
3201. „ rotundicollis Reitter.
3202. „ trichonyf ormis Reitter.
3203. ,, scbizocnemis Broun.
3204. „ carinatus Broun.
3205. ,, antennalis Broun.
3206. „ eruensis Broun.
3207. ,, heterarthrus Broun.
3208. „ biimpressus Broun.
3209. Pycnoplectus cephalotes Reitter.
3210. Vidamus calcaratus Broun.
3211. ,, incertus Reitter.
3212. Plectomorphus optandus Broun.
3213. „ longipes Broun.
3214. Byraxis monstrosa Reitter.
3215. ,, rhyssarthra Broun.
Group SlLPHIDAE.
3216. Choleva caeca Broun.
3217. ,, castanea Broun.
3218. Camiarus estriatus Broun.
3219. Silphotelus oblkjuus Broun.
Group COLYDIIDAE.
3220. Syncalus explanatus Broun.
3221. Tarphiomimus tuberculatus Broun.
3222. Ulonotus uropterus Broun.
3223. ,, wallacei Broun.
3224. Notoulus demissus Broun.
3225. Bitoma niaura Broun.
3226.
3227.
3228.
Group Pycxomeridae.
Pycnomerus reversus Broun.
,, candidus Broun.
Group BOTHRIDERIDAE.
Bothrideres diversus Broun.
Group Cryptophagidae.
3229. Cryptophagus amoenus Broun.
Group Lathridiidae.
3230. Corticaria fuscicollis Broun.
( ',vi hi]) Byrrhidae.
3231. Pedilophorus opaculus Broun.
Group Copridae.
3232. Saphobius lepidus Broun.
( rroup Mblolonthidae.
3233. Odontria nitidula Broun.
3234. ,, monticola Broun.
3235. „ similis Broun.
323(>. Costleya simmondsi Broun.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera.
381
3237.
Ol'OUp EUCNEMIDAE.
Talerax dorsalis Broun.
Group Elaleridae.
3238. Protelater diversus Broun
3239. Chrosis dubitans Broun.
3240. Corym bites fulvescens Broun.
3241. ' „ vitticollis Broun.
3242. „ approximans Broun.
3243. „ sternalis Broun.
Group Dascyllidae.
3244. Atopida basalis Broun.
3245. Mesocyphon mandibularis Broun.
3246. Cyphon pachymerus Broun.
Group Melyridae.
3247. Arthracanthus foveicollis Broun.
Group Cleridae.
3248. Phymatophaea griseipennis Broun.
3249. Partnius violaceus Broun.
Group Axobiidae.
3250. Anobium inaequale Broun.
3251. „ niticolle Broun.
Group Opatridae.
3252. Syrphetodes truncatus Broun.
Group DlAPERIDAE.
3253. Menimus lineatus Broun.
Group Helopidae.
3254. Adelium complicatum Broun.
3255. Cerodolus curvellus Broun.
Group Axthicidae.
3256. Cotes insignis Broun.
Group Melandryidae.
3257. Hylobia plagiata Broun.
3258. „ guinnessi Broun.
Group Otiorhynchidae.
3259. Nicaeana nesopbila Broun.
3260. Epitimetes grisealis Broun.
3261. Nonnotus nigricans Broun.
3262. Tigones rugosa Broun.
3263. ,, albopicta Broun.
3264. Platyomida liamiltoni Broun.
3265. „ morosa Broun.
3266. Lyperobates guinnessi Broun.
3267. ,, elegantulus Broun.
3268. ,, rostralis Broun.
3269. ,, punctatus Broun.
3270. Phaeocharis cuprealis Broun.
3271. „ punctatus Broun.
3272. Notiopatae terricola Broun.
3273. Getopsephus acuminatus Broun.
3274. Brachyolus labeculatus Broun.
3275. „ var'ius Broun.
3276. Agatholobus waterhousei Broun.
Cl'oup RllYPAROSOMIDA E.
3277. Phrynixus setipes Broun.
3278. ,, binodosus Broun.
3279. Lithocia acuminata Broun.
3280. Bradypatae minor Broun.
3281. Clypeorhynchus calvulus Broun.
3282. ,. caudatus Broun.
3283. Phemus curvipes Broun.
3284. ,, constrictus Broun.
3285. Sosgenes planirostris Broun.
3286. Rachidiscus multinodosus Broun.
3287. Phygothalpus sulcicollis Broun.
Group Cylindrorhinidae.
3288. Tocris aterrima Broun.
3289. „ hamiltoni Brown.
3290. Heteromias foveirostris Broun.
3291. Geochus posticalis Broun.
Group Erirhinidae.
3292. Erirhinus titahensis Broun.
3293. ,, oleariae Broun.
3294. ,, exilis Broun.
3295. Dorytomus maorinus Broun .
3296. ,, consonus Broun.
3297. Aneuma spinifera Broun.
3298. Eugnomus calvulus Broun.
3299. ,, dennanensis Broun.
3300. Oreocharis albosparsa Broun.
3301. ,, veronicae Broun.
3302. ,, picipennis Broun.
3303. ,, uniformis Broun.
3304. ,, dives Broun.
3305. ,, castanea Broun.
3306. Hoplocneme vicina Broun.
3307. Pactola nitidula Broun.
3308. ,, fuscicornis Broun.
3309. ,, binodiceps Broun.
Group Anthoxomidae.
3310. Hypotagea lewisi Broun.
Group Cryptorhynchidae.
3311. Psepholax acanthomerus Broun.
3312. Mesoreda Iongula Broun.
3313. Acalles conicollis Broun.
3314. „ eruensis Broun.
3315. ,, peelensis Broun.
3316. ,, consors Broun.
3317. „ gracilis Broun.
3318. ,, contractus Broun.
3319. Tychanus costatus Broun.
3320. C'risius humeralis Broun.
3321. ,, semifuscus Broun.
3322. ,, decorus Broun.
3323. Tychanopais flavisparsus Broun.
3324. Allanalcis ignealis Broun.
3325. ,, oculatus Broun.
3326. ,, dilatatus Broun.
3327. Metacalles erinitus Broun.
3328. „ lanosus Broun.
3329. Zeacalles pictus Broun.
3330. ,, femoralis Broun.
3331. Onias irregularis Broun.
Xenacalles gen. nov. Type 1-127.
3332. Getacalles substriatua Broun.
382
Transactions .
( i| ,,,) ( lOSSONIDAE.
.3333. Pentarthrum impressum Broun.
3334. .. . tenebrosum Broun.
Group Anthribidae.
3335. P^ugonissus turneri Broun.
3336. ,, sylvanus Broun.
3337. Anthribus cornutellus Broun.
3338. ,, levinensis Broun.
3339. „ obscurus Broun.
3340. ., wairirensis Broun.
Group Cerambyctdae.
3341. Didymocantha media Broun.
3342. .. oedemera Broun.
3343. ., fuscicollis Broun.
Group Lam Hi) a i;.
3344. Somatidia thoracica Broun.
3345. ,. uodularia Broun.
3346. ,, piscoidea Broun.
( rroup Lamiidae — continued.
3347. Somatidia posticalis Broun.
3348. „ corticola Broun.
3349. ., pinguis Broun.
3350. Tetrorea niaculata Broun.
3351. Hybolasius cupiendus Broun.
3352. ,, tumidellus Broun.
3353. ,, rugicollis Broun.
Group Eumolpidae.
3354. Pilacolaspis angulatus Broun.
3355. „ latipennis Broun.
Group Galerv/ctdae.
3356. Luperus simmondsi Broun.
3357. ,, foveigerus Broun.
3358. „ o'cormori Broun.
3359. „ atrip 3nnis Broun.
Group Erotylidae.
3360. ( Iryptodacne ocularia Broun.
Gkoujp Cnehacanthidae.
3164. Mecodema o'connori sp. nov. Mecodema Blanchard, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 7.
Robust, moderately convex, shining, elytra less so; black, legs and
antennae rufo-piceous, palpi more rufescent.
Head large, including the mandibles, a fourth longer than the
thorax, with a series of fine punctures across it behind the prominent
eyes, near which, and on the forehead, the rugae are well marked and
longitudinal. Ihorax with crenulate margins, which are a little ex-
panded in front; it is slightly broader near the apex than at the
middle, and considerably curvedly narrowed behind, so that the base is
but little more than half the breadth of the frontal portion, just at the
obtusely rectangular angles the sides are almost straight, the apex is
slightly but widely incurved, the base truncate, its length is a fourth
less than the width; the mesial groove is well marked and ends at the
transversal impression near the apex, the basal fossae are deep, placed
close to the sides, extend a little inwards, and are limited behind by the
raised basal margin; the disc is finely transversely striate, the base and
apex longitudinally but indefinitely, near each side there 'is a shallow
foveiform impression. Elytra, oblong-oval, gently narrowed towards the
base, which, notwithstanding, is rather broader than that of the thorax;
their striae are well marked, the 5 nearest the suture, on each, are
closely and distinctly punctured, with plane, broad interstices; near the
sides the striae are deeper and broader, and their punctures rather
coarser and somewhat transversal, with narrower and more convex inter-
stices; the smooth space outside the 8th stria is rather narrow, and is
not prolonged forwards much beyond the posterior femur.
Antennae pubescent from the 5th joint onwards. Legs relatively
rather slender, the anterior and intermediate tibiae with moderately
prominent external angles.
Underside black, a little nitid, nearly smooth, the terminal ventral
segment finely transversely striate, unipunctate at each 'side of the
middle, at the extremitv.
Ukoun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 383
The diagnosis shows clearly enough that this cannot very well be
confounded with previously described species.
$. Length, 35 mm.; breadth, 11mm.
Levin, near Wellington. A single .female. This bears the name of
its discoverer, Mr. A. O'Connor, who has recently brought to light many
interesting beetles from the Tararua Range and other localities.
3165. Mecodema bryobium sp. nov.
Elongate, slightly convex, head and thorax a little shining, elytra
rather dull; nigrescent, legs and antennae rufo-piceous.
Head nearly as broad as front of thorax and, including the man-
dibles, rather longer than it is; rather coarsely rugose, longitudinally
at the sides and on the forehead, transversely on the vertex, in line with
the back part of the prominent eyes it is rather coarsely rugosely punc-
tate, the sculpture behind consists of short irregular wrinkles and fine
punctures. Thorax slightly broader than long, widely yet not deeply
incurved in front, lateral margins not definitely crenulate, slightly
munded from the anterior angles to beyond the middle, behind strongly
curvedly narrowed, but straight near the obtuse angles, its base little
more than half the width of the middle; disc nearly flat; the distinct
central furrow does not quite reach the base or apex, both of which are
impressed with short longitudinal striae; the well-marked rugae do not
extend right across the surface, being somewhat interrupted or irregular;
there is no distinct punctation ; the basal fossae are deep, and situated
close to the lateral and basal margins. Elytra oblong-oval, gradually
narrowed towards the base, which, however, is broader than that of the
thorax; on each elytron the 5 discoidal striae are narrow and rather
finely punctured, but are much more deeply impressed at the base; the
intervals between these are nearly quite flat, and under the microscope
appear densely and minutely coriaceous; the outer striae are deep, but
not coarsely punctured, with subcarinate interstices, which, as well as
some of the adjoining ones, are traversed more or less by short trans-
verse impressions.
Underside shining black; the middle of the head with short trans-
verse rugae, its sides with short, dense, very irregular rugosities; pro-
sternum irregularly punctate, flanks of mesosternum densely and rugosely;
abdomen finely sculptured, its last segment bipunctate at each side of the
middle at the apex.
This bears a considerable resemblance to M. acuductum (2602), but
the thorax differs in form, being more abruptly contracted at the base;
there is no punctation near the anterior angles; the discoidal rugae are
more numerous, coarser, and interrupted, and no single one stretches
right across the disc; and, moreover, the lateral margins are not per-
ceptibly crenulate. The punctation of the outer elytral striae is entirely
different. In 2602 the punctures are deep and subquadrate, and the
transverse intervals between them are on about the same level as the
longitudinal interstices, just the reverse of what occurs in this species.
These are not sexual disparities, as my specimen of each species is of
the male sex.
<J. Length, 26 mm. ; breadth, 8 mm.
Silverstream, near Wellington. Mr. A. O'Connor informs me that
he secured several specimens, on different occasions, amongst moss at
the roots of birch-trees only.
384 Transactions.
31 66. Mecodema laevicolle sp. nov.
Elongate, brilliant, nigrescent; legs, antennae, and palpi rufo-
piceous.
Head, mandibles included, slightly longer than thorax and, including
the convex eyes, almost as broad as it is; nearly smooth, there being
only a few fine scattered punctures on the vertex, more numerous ones
across the back part just behind the eyes, and a few irregular lateral
rugae. Thorax but little broader than long, scarcely broader at the
middle than near the front, its sides slightly curvate to beyond the
middle and moderately narrowed behind ; the base medially truncate,
but feebly rounded near the sides, so that the angles appear obtuse, the
apex slightly but widely emarginate; lateral margins, and channels, of
equal width almost to the base, not perceptibly crenulate ; its surface
smooth or only obsoletely lineated, the dorsal groove distinct but m>t
attaining the base or apex, basal fossae deep, well limited, and touching
the sides and hind margin. Elytra oblong-oval, rather broader than
thorax at the base; on each elytron there are 4 discofdal series of rather
slender fine punctures, the 6th and 7th series are moderately large and
rather coarser than the 5th or 8th; the marginal sculpture, too, is
rather fine, and more or less duplicated, the apical irregular and coarser.
Legs stout; external angles of the front pairs of tibiae slightly pro-
minent, posterior pair simple. Antennae with the 5th and following
articulations pubescent.
Underside shining back ; flank of presternum moderately punctate
and rugose; abdomen smooth, its last segment bipunetate at each side of
the middle, at the extremity.
The glossy, rather smooth surface, simple thoracic margins, and deep
well-defined basal fossae, distinguish this from all the other species of
moderate size. M. seriatum (2605) is perhaps the most nearly allied; its
sculpture, however, is very different.
o*. Length, 20 mm. ; breadth, 6^ mm.
Bold Peak, Wakatipu ; altitude, about 6,000 ft. A specimen was
given to me by Mr. O'Connor, but its discoverer is Mr. H. Hamilton.
3167. Mecodema quoinense sp. nov.
Elongate, slightly convex, moderately nitid ; black, femora and basal
joint of antennae piceo-rufous.
Head, mandibles included, a sixth longer than thorax, but rather
narrower, with numerous fine punctures behind the small prominent
eyes; near these latter there are 3 or 4 curved striae, and some fine
transverse ones in front. Labrum slightly rounded, quadripuncate only.
Mandibles elongate, obliquely wrinkled, the left particularly. Thorax
nearly a third broader than long, widest before the middle, slightly
rounded there, gradually curvedly narrowed backwards, without any
definite sinuation or contraction near the base, which is medially in-
curved, with obtuse angles; lateral margins not crenulate, rather narrow,
only slightly expanded in front, the apex subtruncate ; its sculpture
consists of feeble transverse striae, short longitudinal ones in front and
at the base, and a few slight punctiform marks near the front ami
the basal fossae, which are deep, but not large, and situated near the
angles; the mesial groove is well marked. Elytra almost twice as long
as broad, a little wider than the thorax, their sides gently and evenly
curved, so that the apex is nearly as broad as the base; they are punc-
tate-striate, rather finely on the disc; the striae nearest the sides are
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 385
deeper and more strongly and closely, yet not very coarsely, punctured;
these become convergent, and do not reach the base; the 3rd and 5th
interstices are a little broader than the others, the 5th at some distance
from the base is split up by a finely punctured stria, the 7th is quadri-
punctate; the smooth space along each side is rather broad and convex;
the marginal punctures are small; the sculpture near the apex becomes
coarsely punctiform and irregular, but the margin, though fine, is quite
distinct there.
Legs rather thick; the external angle at the apex of the front tibiae
is hardly at all prominent, that of the intermediate pair is moderately
angulate. Antennae with the basal 4 joints smooth and glabrous, the
others finely and closely punctate, but, in my specimen, only scantily
pubescent.
The shape of the thorax is somewhat similar to that of M. laeviceps
and M. cognatum, but the elytra! sculpture, rather thick legs, and
reduction of labial punctures are good distinguishing features.
<J. Length, 25 mm.; breadth, 8 mm.
Mount Quoin, Tararua Kange; elevation, 3,90(Jft. My specimen,
somewhat damaged, was found by Mr. A. O'Connor, of Wellington, who
sent it mounted on cardboard.
3168. Mecodema arcuatum sp. nov.
Elongate, dull sooty black, legs, antennae, and palpi piceous.
Head rather large, including the mandibles, as long as the thorax,
forehead strongly longitudinally striate, more irregularly near the eyes;
in line with these there are numerous distinct punctures; labrum cur-
vate in front. Thorax cordate, apex evidently arcuate-emarginate, its
sides not distinctly crenulate, curvedly narrowed towards the base but
without any abrupt contraction there, lateral margins not unequally
expanded, posterior angles obtuse; the disc with feeble transverse striae,
but the basal fossae, which are moderately large and placed close to the
angles, are more distinctly and irregularly wrinkled, the base is more or
less punctate, the curvate frontal impression is well marked throughout
and near the angles feebly punctate, the median groove is distinct;
length and breadth about equal. Elytra slightly convex, twice as long
as thorax, only a little broader, their sides gently rounded, about
equally so near the base and apex; the sutural 4 striae on each elytron
are only slightly impressed, and rather finely and distantly punctured
on the middle, with plane interstices; the 3rd and 5th are a little
broader than the others; the 5th and 6th striae are rather more distinctly
punctate, and the 7th interstice is somewhat carinate from the base
towards the middle; the 7th and 8th striae are deeper and more coarsely
but not very regularly punctured; the interval between the 8th stria
and the side is smooth.
Legs rather thick, like those of M. quoinense, the external angle of
the posterior tibiae hardly at all prominent. Antennae pubescent from
the 4th joint onwards.
From all the other species, except the very different M. striatum
(2600), this is distinguished by the more incurved thoracic apex. Castel-
nau's M. impressum is described as having a rather brilliant coppery
hue, with the anterior angles of the thorax densely punctate, whilst
M. lucidum is larger. I do not think that this species will prove to be
13— Trans.
386 Transactions
identical with either of these. The elytral interstices are not flat in
M. quoin ense.
$. Length, 23 mm. ; breadth, 7^ mm.
Near Martinborough, Wellington. Mr. A. O'Connor. Unique.
Group Anchomexidak.
3169. Ctenognathus simmondsi sp. nov. Ctenognathus Fairmair, Ann.
Soc. Ent. France, 1843.
Black, moderately nitid, femora infuscate, tibiae, tarsi, antennae,
and palpi ferruginous.
Head oviform, constricted behind the prominent eyes, with a pair
of setae near each of these, the frontal impressions elongate. Thorax of
equal length and breadth, widest just before the middle, well rounded
there, strongly sinuate behind, but nearly straight, or extending slightly
outwards, near the base, with rectangular posterior angles, lateral mar-
gins reflexed throughout; basal fossae large, prolonged forwards as
broad marginal channels almost to the apex, so that the disc appears to
be on a higher plane; the deep median groove becomes obsolete towards
both extremities; the oblique frontal linear impressions are well marked,
the transversal discoidal and the longitudinal basal wrinkles are
feebly impressed. Elytra oblong-oval, with gradually and regularly
rounded shoulders; they are obliquely narrowed but only slightly
sinuated apically; dorsum slightly convex, with sharply marked and
almost impunctate striae and scutellar striolae; interstices nearly plane,
without perceptible punctures.
Antennae elongate, reaching backwards beyond the middle femora.
Tarsi elongate, the ijosterior feebly ridged and bisulcate above.
Nearly related to the Southland G. littorellus (2670), which, however,
has convex elytral interstices and different thoracic channels. In 1686,
C. adamsi, the basal fossae are only prolonged as far as the middle of
the sides, and the lateral rims are less reflexed.
Length, 11mm.; breadth, 4| mm.
Mount Quoin, near Wellington. Found at an altitude of 1,000 ft.
by Mr. Hubert W. Simmonds, after whom it has been named.
3170. Tarastethus amplipennis sp. nov. Tarastethus Sharp, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 1003.
Nitid, nigrescent, suture and margins of elytra slightly rufescent ;
femora yellow; tibiae, palpij and antennae testaceous, the basal joint of
these last always so, the following ones sometimes darker; mandibles and
labrum piceo-rufous.
Head impunctate, the elongate frontal impression and subocular
groove at each side with a cariniform interval. Eyes large, finely
faceted. Labium almost truncate, with 6 setigerous punctures. Thorax
about a third broader than long, widest near the middle, rounded there,
moderately narrowed and slightly sinuate behind ; lateral margins some-
what expanded in front, so that the angles seem obtusely prominent;
posterior angles sharply rectangular, usually projecting outwardly ; disc
moderately convex, nearly perfectly smooth, its central groove not
attaining the base or apex; basal fossae large and deep, the interval
distinctly punctured, a shallow oblique impression which extends to-
wards the middle, at each side, causes the area near the angle to appear
explanate and elevated. Scutellum distinct. Elytra large and convex,
Broun. — -New Genera and Species of Coleopteva. 387
about a third broader than the thorax, with rather broad rounded
shoulders; they are very distinctly and regularly striate, but the punc-
tation of the striae is rather fine; each has a short scutellar stria; there
is no subapieal carina; there is a single puncture, placed before the
middle, on the 3rd interstices.
Underside glossy piceous, coxae reddish, the posterior trochanters
testaceous. Mesosternum medially convex but not canaliculate, its flanks
punctate. Abdomen impunctate, but with some shallow lateral im-
pressions.
'The posterior tarsi are simple, but the 4th joint of the other pairs
is distinctly longer than the third, with well-developed rather elongate
lobes. In the male the basal four joints are slightly dilated, and of about
equal width; the 2nd and 3rd are cordiform, but the sexual disparity
is hardly perceptible.
Var. T. labralis. — Labrum with minutely coriaceous sculpture, but
without the least trace of setigerous punctures in front.
Readily distinguishable by the subcordiform, regularly striated hind-
body, with unipunctate interstices, but lacking the usual carinae. There
is only one ocular seta, and that of the thorax is situated behind the
middle of each side.
Length, 6^-7 mm. ; breadth, 2§-3 mm.
Raurimu. I secured five specimens from under logs in January,
1910, and Captain H. S. Whitehorn, of the Geological Survey Depart-
ment, during March, collected and forwarded a parcel of forest leaves
out of which I picked another. These decayed leaves were gathered near
the head of the Retaruke River, near the recently surveyed coalfield.
3171. Tarastethus phyllocharis sp. no v.
Convex, glossy, piceo-niger; legs ferruginous; palpi, antennae, and
tarsi fulvescent ; mandibles and labium pitchy red.
Head smooth, the frontal impressions rather elongate and deep, so
that the broad plica near each eye appears elevated ; labrum incurved
in front, with 6 setigerous punctures. Thorax a fourth broader than
long, the middle widest, well rounded there, moderately sinuate-angustate
behind, posterior angles rectangular; disc smooth and convex, the
base slightly depressed, distinctly and rather closely punctate, the fossae
about equidistant from the sides and middle but not sharply defined,
the discoidal groove somewhat expanded behind. Elytra a fifth longer
than broad, evidently broader than the thorax, their sides distinctly
margined and more rounded at the base and apex than at the middle,
the shoulders, however, are rather wider than the base of the thorax;
they are seriate-punctate, the inner series, however, almost form striae,
the sculpture becomes very much finer and more irregular behind, and
the punctures outside the 4th series usually become obsolete near the
base; the interstices are broad and plane, and the apical carinae are
well developed.
Underside shining; mesosternum convex and deeply channelled in
the middle and punctate at the sides; metasternum broadly concave
medially; abdomen impunctate, but with shallow foveiform impressions
at each side, the terminal segment, at the extremity, has a pair of
setigerous punctures on each side of the middle, where it is finely trans-
versely wrinkled.
The thorax is rather shorter and less deeply sinuate towards the base
than in T. puncti colli* (1799), and the whole sculpture differs, and, more-
13*
388 Transactions.
over, the thoracic setae are absent, though the specimens are quite fresh
and uninjured.
Length, 6 mm. ; breadth, 3 mm.
Erua, at an elevation of about 2,500 ft. ' Three were found by myself
in January, 1910, and two by Mr. W. J. Guinness, railway station-
master, in March, all amongst decaying leaves on the ground. Another
was found near the base of Mount Ngauruhoe by Mr. Guinness; and
one taken previously by myself at Raurimu, elevation 1.900 ft., has more
strongly sculptured elytra than the others.
3172. Tarastethus lewisi sp. uov.
Glossy, aeneo-niger, elytra! margins and apices, the legs, antennae,
and palpi testaceous, mandibles pitchy red.
Head smooth, reddish in front, interocular impressions elongate, the
space between each of these and the lateral groove somewhat elevated.
Eyes large, not prominent, finely faceted. Thorax a fourth broader
than long, widest near the middle, its sides distinctly margined, mode-
rately rounded, slightly sinuously narrowed behind the middle, posterior
angles rectangular ; the anterior, though not prominent, are more dis-
tinct than usual, owing to the slight dilatation of the lateral margins
there; disc moderately convex, smooth, its central sulcus does not attain
the apex, the base has duplicate fossae near each side, and the outer one
is separated from the lateral margin by a carina. Scutellum distinct,
rather broad. Elytra oviform, a fifth longer than broad, widest near
the middle, of the same width as thorax at the base, with refiexed mar-
gins and rather broad channels; they are moderately punctate-striate,
the striae, however, do not reach the base, and, except the sutural pair,
become indefinite towards the extremity, and those beyond the 4th are
indistinct near the sides; 3rd interstices slightly broader than the con-
tiguous ones and rather coarsely tripunctate, the apical carinae are well
developed.
Certain peculiarities are observable in this species. Ihe labrum is
remarkable, for in place of being subquadrate, and widely emarginate
in front, it is quite conical, and bears an exserted central seta and a
pair of finer ones at the sides. The maxillary palpi are finely setose.
The inner emargination of the front tibiae is less distinct than usual, so
also is the basal margin of the elytra. The surface of the front tarsi is
more pubescent. There is only a single ocular seta, and that of the
thorax appears to be absent.
Length, 4| mm. ; breadth, 24 mm.
Greymouth. Described from a female sent by Mr. J. H. Lewis, whose
name has been given to it.
3173. Tarastethus cordipennis sp. uov.
Convex, rather elongate, glossy, nigro-piceous, labrum and mandibles
dark red; antennae, palpi, and tarsi testaceous, the legs rather darker.
Head oviform, frontal impressions elongate, and with some fine punc-
tures between them. Labrum quadrate. Eyes nearly flat, indistinctly
faceted. Thorax apparently elongate, actually of equal length and
breadth, lateral margins distinct, slightly thickened behind, it is mode-
rately rounded at and before the middle, and distinctly sinuate behind,
the base nevertheless is about as wide as the apex, with rectangular
angles ; the dorsal furrow does not extend to the apex or base, which
latter is very distinctly punctured right across; the basal fossae are
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 389
situated between the middle and the sides, and, owing partly to the punc-
tation, are not very definite. Elytra widest before the middle, a good deal
attenuated posteriorly, with the lateral margins well developed to within
a short distance of the apices; they are, relatively, strongly seriate-
punctate ; near the suture, however, they are striate and rather more
finely punctured; the apical carinae are not very sharply elevated, and
the space between the outer series of punctures and the sculptured mar-
ginal channel on each elytron is smooth.
Underside shining black; abdomen uneven, with broadly depressed
sutures between its segments, the terminal bipunctate at each side of the
7niddle at the apex.
The lather elongate contour, longish thorax, and the posteriorly
attenuated cordiform hind-body are good discriminating characters.
length, 6 mm.; breadth, 2Jmm.
Mount Quoin, Tararua Range. A single female, from Mr. H. W.
Simmonds.
Group Pooonidae.
3174. Obpterus laevigatus sp. nov. (hipterus Guerin, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 54.
Suboblong, slightly convex, nitid ; castaneous, femora and elytral
margins fulvescent ; the tibiae, tarsi, antennae, and labium more or less
rufo-castaneous.
Head smooth, the frontal impressions well marked and extending
from the interantennal suture to the middle of the eyes, which are large
and moderately convex. Thorax a seventh broader than long, widest at
the middle, gently curvedly narrowed anteriorly, gradually, but scarcely
sinuously, contracted behind, with rectangular but not acute posterior
angles, base truncate, apex slightly incurved, lateral margins rather
thin; basal fossae broad and well marked, each separated from the side
by a distinct carina, the central groove hardly attains the apex, its
whole surface impunctate, but with a few fine striae near the middle of
the base. Scutellum subcordate, smooth. Elytra oblong-oval, a little
wider than thorax at the base, not quite thrice its length, with broad
lateral margins, which, however, become very narrow near the broadly
rounded apices; on each elytron there are 4 slightly impressed, impunc-
tate striae; these are obsolete near the base, the sutural alone reaches
the apex; the apical plica is distinct, the base is tripunctate but the
3rd interstice is only very feebly so, the side is quadripunctate near the
shoulder, the posterior punctures are less definite, there are none at all
rear the middle.
Tibiae straight, the front pair nearly glabrous, the others finely setose.
Tarsi with yellow setae above; the anterior with the basal joint dilated
and oblong, the next cordiform, also dilated, yet hardly as broad, the
inner angle of both slightly prolonged; 3rd and 4th cordate, evidently
smaller than the 2nd, and consequently hardly at all expanded.
Tn 0. patnlux (1145) the thorax is widest before the middle, and
therefore subcordate. and its sculpture is different; the elytra ai-e shorter
and more oval, with fine yet quite perceptibly punctured striae, the 3rd
interstices are tripunctate, and the coloration is altogether darker.
£. Length, 6| mm. ; breadth, 2§ mm.
Hastwell. near Napier. A single male, found by Mr. H. Suter. This
genus was placed by Lacordaire in the Gnernacanthidae, by Bates in the
Por/onidae .
390 Transactions.
Group Feronidab.
3175. Trichosternus wallacei sp. nov. Trichostenius Chaudoir, Man. N.Z-
Coleopt.. p. 31.
Oblong, slightly convex, moderately nitid; black, elytral margins
faintly viridescent, legs and antennae rufo-piceous, tips of palpi rufes-
cent.
Head smooth, frontal foveae elongate, with 2 setigerous punctures
alongside each eve and the same number on the forehead ; labrum trans-
verse, feebly emarginate. Eyes prominent. Thorax subquadrate, a
third broader than long, the apex widely incurved, base medially emar-
ginate, lateral margins moderately thick; it is a little broader before
the middle (in some examples hardly at all) than elsewhere, gently
rounded towards the front, nearly straight behind, posterior angles
exactly rectangular; the median sulcus does not reach the apex, and is
slightly expanded behind; the basal fossae, situated between the middle
and sides, are large, somewhat prolonged laterally, so that the 'pace
near each angle seems flattened. Scutellum striate at base. Elytra with
dentiform shoulders, just perceptibly broader than thorax at the base,
their sides slightly curvate, with well- developed margins, moderately
sinuate-angustate near the extremity; their striae are well marked, and
become deeper and wider towards the sides and apices, but are rather
indefinitely punctured; interstices plane on the middle, convex near the
extremity and sides, the 3rd and 5th generally slightly broader than
those near the suture, the former tripunctate, the 7th with 5 punctures.
Femora moderately slender; intermediate tibiae with slightly pro-
minent hind angles; tarsi rather slender; the basal four joints of the
anterior only moderately dilated.
Underside glossy black, almost quite smooth; the apex of the terminal
ventral segment quadripunctate in both sexes.
Female. — Elytral striae very finely but rather more distinctly punc-
tate than in the male.
I have seen a dozen specimens; sometimes there are 4 punctures on
the 3rd interstices and I on the 5rd, but otherwise they are homogeneous
and vary but little in size. The only similar species is T. hanmerensis
(2631).
Length, 21-23 mm. ; breadth, 8-8£ mm.
Wairiri, Seaward Kaikouras. It is with pleasure that I name this
species after its discoverer, Mr. W. L. Wallace.
3176. Pterostichus hamiltoni sp. nov. Pteroslichus Bonelli, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 31.
Suboblong, narrowed medially, only slightly convex, shining; black,
the tibiae, tarsi, and antennae piceo-rufous, palpi paler.
Head, including the prominent eyes, rather narrower than front of
thorax, almost quite smooth, with elongate frontal impressions. Thorax
wiriest at the middle, regularly rounded from the obtuse anterior angles
to beyond the middle, and from thence considerably, and somewhat
sinuously, narrowed towards the well-defined rectangular posterior angles ;
it is quite a third broader than long; the apex is deeply, the base slightly
medially, incurved; the basal fossae are deep, rather elongate, distinctly
separated from the sides and more widely from the middle, the mesial
groove does not reach the apex, the surface is nearly smooth. Scutellum
strongly seriate at the base. Elytra more than double the length of
thorax, a good deal, yet gradually, nan-owed towards the base, the
Broun. — Neiv Genera and Species, of Coleoptera. 391
humeral margins thickened but not projecting, and not exceeding the
thoracic angles in width ; they are very evidently sinuate behind, the
apices, nevertheless, are quite broad and only slightly rounded; they are
finely and regularly punctate-striate, interstices plane on the disc, but
becoming a little convex near the sides and extremity; the 3rd, 5th,
and 7th are slightly broader than the others, the 3rd are tripunctate,
and the 7th have about 6 rather large punctures.
Underside shining black; the terminal ventral segment has a broad
oblique depression extending from the base to the middle, at each side;
the apical portion is a little depressed and distinctly longitudinally
strigose, and is bipunctate at each side of the middle, at the extremity.
There are 2 setigerous punctures near each eye, the same number on
the forehead; there is one before the middle at each side of the thorax
and another at the hind angle.
This belongs to the section composed of Trichosternus-like species (see
p. 986, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.), but after comparison with its numerous
members I fail to find any exactly like it. The unusual sculpture of the
last abdominal segment is a good guide to discrimination.
$. Length, 25 mm.; breadth, 8 J mm.
Bold Peak, Wakatipu ; elevation, about 6,000 ft. A single female,
named in honour of Mr. H. Hamilton, its finder, whose recent collecting
tours have added considerably to our knowledge of the coleopterous fauna
of the mountainous regions of the South Island.
GlOUp AXISODACTYLIDAE.
3177. Allocinopus smithi sp. nov. Allocinopus Broun, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 7, vol. 11. p. 607.
Oblong, slightly convex, moderately nitid ; rufo-piceous, lateral mar-
gins of thorax and elytra more rufescent, labrum and mandibles dark
red; the legs and antennae fusco-rufous, but with the basal two joints
of these latter and the palpi fulvescent.
Head short and broad, yet rather narrower than the thorax, smooth,
with a pair of shallow interantennal foveae; epistome longitudinally
striate, and, near each front angle, with a setigerous puncture; there is
another one near the back of each eye. Thorax about a third broader
than long, its apex widely but not deeply incurved, so that the angles
appear slightly prominent; base subtruncate and finely margined; it is
a little wider before the middle than elsewhere, moderately rounded there,
and rather gradually narrowed towards the rectangular but not acute
posterior angles; the lateral margins are well developed, and the channels
inside these, through narrow, are a little widened in front; the basal
fossae, situated between the middle and sides, are shallow and indefinite,
and outside these the surface is slightly flattened, the median groove
extends from the basal margin but does not reach the apex, there is no
other distinct sculpture. Elytra nearly twice as long as broad, rather
wider than thorax at the base, their sides distinctly margined and nearly
straight, but widely sinuated and considerably narrowed towards the
extremity; their impunctate striae, with the exception of the two sutural,
which do not reach the basal margin, are well marked throughout, the
short scutellar striae also are distinct; interstices simple and nearly
plane, the lateral punctiform impressions are not coarse or deep.
Legs stout, the tibiae fringed inwardly with fine setae, the inter-
mediate with spiniform setae externally ; tarsi finely setose above.
392 Transactions.
Underside shining, the head and breast pitchy red, abdomen nigro-
piceous. Metasternum indistinctly granulate. Terminal ventral segment
obliquely narrowed towards the extremity, which is subacuminate, with
a single setigerous puncture there at each side of the middle. Ihe front
and middle tarsi bear elongate setae along their soles, and a spiniform
one at the side of the basal four joints.
Male. — Prosternal process with numerous setae at the tip. Meta-
sternum short, with minute granules and setae in the middle. Basal
ventral segment at the base, in the middle, finely sculptured and minutely
setose, the terminal one distinctly sinuate near the extremity, angulate
at the commencement of the sinuosities, the apex itself obtusely rounded
and with a pair of setigerous punctures there.
$. Length, 8 mm.; breadth, 3 mm.
Katapihipihi Forest, Taranaki. A pair of mutilated specimens were
found by Mr. W. W. Smith, whose name has been attached to this
species. The discovery of the male is important, as without it I had
been unable to determine the genus to which other species belonged.
Obs. — This and the following species will not, I think, remain per-
manently with Allocinopus, as they exhibit certain differences. In both
sexes the prosternal process is setigerous. The terminal articulations of
the palpi are acute at the extremity instead of being obtuse or subtrun-
cate ; the maxillary are finely setose, and the penultimate joint is shorter
than the terminal. The rigid setae attached to the mentum are very
elongate, so also are the pair at the apex of the ligula. The soles of the
male tarsi appear to be without distinct sponge-like vestiture, but my
specimen having lost one foot, and as the other is not perfectly free from
sappy matter, T. do not feel sure on this point.
3173. Allocinopus castaneus sp. nov.
Oblong, moderately shining; head and thorax dark castaneous;
antennae, legs, and elytra rufo-castaneous, these last paler along the
sides near the apices; labium and mandibles piceo-rufous, palpi ful-
vescent .
In most respects similar to A. svriithi. The tips of the terminal
joints of the palpi are more pointed, and the 2nd joint of the maxillary
more curvate. The forehead is less evidently striate. The anterior
angles of the thorax, owing to the very slight apical incurvature, are
less prominent, its lateral margins are thinner, and the basal fossae
rather more distinct and elongate. The elytra are somewhat more
oviform and less acuminate posteriorly. The seta at each side of thorax
is placed before the middle, as in the preceding and following species.
Underside wholly piceo-rufous. Prosternal setae numerous, but not
coarse. Terminal ventral segment widely sinuate towards the extremity,
which is broadly rounded, instead of being subacuminate, as in the
preceding species, it is similarly bisetose.
$. Length, 7-7£ mm. ; breadth, 2|-2§mm.
Maketu, Hunua Range. Both specimens are females, and weie found
about twenty years ago, at long intervals, during collecting-tours.
3179. Allocinopus angustulus sp. nov.
Castaneo-rufous, shining; the legs, palpi, and basal articulations of
antennae fulvescent ; remaining joints of these last darker and opaque;
epistome, labrum, and mandibles reddish, these hist, however, are nigres-
cent at the extremitv.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 393
Head nearly quite smooth. Thorax about a fourth broader than
long, not perfectly smooth, having some obsolete longitudinal linear
impressions in front and transverse ones on the disc; the mesial sulcus
nearly attains the apex; there are no basal fossae, only a broad oblique
impression of each side near the angle; its sides are rather slightly,
almost regularly rounded, yet rather more straightly narrowed towards
the subrectangular basal angles. Elytra with well-marked impunctate
striae and short scutellar grooves; they are rather wider than thorax at
the base, and a good deal, though gradually, narrowed behind the pos-
terior femora, with only very slight subapical sinuosities.
When compared with A. smithi this is seen to be narrower and
flatter. The front of the thorax is a little more incurved, so that its
angles seem more prominent, but the posterior angles are more obtuse,
and the base slightly emarginate medially. The elytra appear to be
narrower and longer, and are not at all abruptly narrowed near the
extremity; the dorsum is nearly Hat, but the sutural region is a little
elevated behind.
$. Length, 8 mm. ; breadth, 21- mm.
Forty-mile Bush, near Napier. A single female, under the number
352, from Mr. H. Suter, had to be set aside for many years until the
recent discovery of the male of A. smithi.
3180. Zabronothus major sp. nov. Zabronothus Broun, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 1327.
Oblong-oval, gradually narrowed anteriorly, slightly convex, mode-
rately shining, piceo-niger; legs, mandibles, and labrum pitchy red, the
antennae, palpi, and tarsi paler.
Head narrower than thorax, smooth, frontal impressions quite obso-
lete. Thorax incurved at apex, with obtuse angles, the width at the
base nearly a third more than the length in the middle; its sides dis-
tinctly margined, nearly straight for two-thirds of the length, being
only very slightly and gradually narrowed anteriorly, but near the
front rather more curvedly contracted ; base medially emarginate and
resting on the elytra, with obtusely rectangular angles; the mesial groove
starts from the basal margin but does not reach the apex, basal impres-
sions feeble and elongate, placed between the middle and sides. Scutel-
lum triangular. Elytra scarcely any broader than the thorax at the
base, humeral angles thickened and projecting outwardly, only very
slightly, however; they are a little wider at and behind the middle, and
considerably though not abruptly narrowed near the extremity; their
striae are simple, narrow, and sharply marked throughout, and become
deeper behind; interstices broad and plane; marginal punctures almost
absent near the middle.
There is a single setigerous puncture at each side of the thorax before
the middle, and another at each hind angle, a pair alongside each eye
and on the edge of the forehead, and twice that number at the extremity
of the last ventral segment.
Antennae thickly covered with yellow pubescence, and a few slender
setae, from the 4th joint onwards, the basal three glabrous; they extend
backAvards to the shoulders. Labrum transverse. Palpi with acuminate
terminal articulations. Eyes moderately large, but not prominent. Legs
robust; tibiae with spiniform setae externally, the posterior flexuous.
394 Transactions.
Considerably larger than the typical species (2333). The general
contour is almost uninterrupted from the posterior femora to the front
of thorax, which in shape differs from that of the other species.
$. Length, 11 mm.; breadth, i|imri.
Broken Kiver, Canterbury. Described from a single female found
by Mr. J. H. Lewis, who also secured the male, which, hoAvever, I have
not seen.
3181. Zabronothus aphelus sp. no v.
Oblong, slightly convex, moderately nitid ; black, legs rufo-castaneous,
antennae, palpi, and tarsi of a lighter hue
Head subovate, evidently narrower than thorax, without definite
frontal impressions. Labrum rufescent, transversely quadrate. Thorax
slightly broader than long, apex widely incurved, with obtuse angles; its
sides finely margined, gently rounded, very feebly sinuate behind, pos-
terior angles rectangular but not acute, the base widely emarginate and
resting on the elytra; the central groove does not attain either the base
or apex; the basal fossae are sulciform, only moderately impressed, and
are situated midway between the middle and sides; the surface is not
perfectly smooth, but there is no obvious sculpture. Elytra oblong-ovalr
more than double the length of the thorax, and, owing to the slightly
dentiform shoulders, rather wider than it is at the base; their sides are
finely margined and a little curved; near the extremity they are some-
what rufescent, but scarcely at all sinuate; on each elytron there are
7 impunctate sharply marked dorsal striae; these extend from the
basal margin to the apex; interstices simple, broad and plane; the serial
punctures between the lateral margin and the 8th stria are nearly absent
at the middle.
Manifestly smaller than the other species, most nearly approximated
to Z. oblongus (3025), but narrower, the thorax less transversely quad-
rate, with more definite posterior angles, more narrowed in front, and
with better-marked basal foveae.
Length, 6J mm. ; breadth, 2J mm.
Wairiri, Kaikoura. A single damaged male, found by Mr. W. L.
Wallace.
Group Aleocharidae
.3182. Aphytopus porosus sp. nov. Aphytopus Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 1024.
Elongate, moderately nitid; pubescence greyish, fine but distinct,
thicker on the elytra than it is elsewhere; head and thorax pale fusco-
rufous, elytra light brown, abdomen dark fuscous, legs and basal five
joints of antennae testaceous.
Head rather broad, not perceptibly narrower than thorax, finely yet
distinctly but not closely punctate. Eyes large, not prominent. Thorax
of equal length and breadth, about a third narrower than the elytra, its
base rounded, the sides nearly straight; it is moderately closely and
distinctly punctured, but without other impressions. Elytra nearly
twice the length of thorax, their shoulders rounded, the punctation a
little coarser but more distant than that of the thorax. Hind-body
elongate, rather finely and distantly sculptured. 5th segment smooth on
the middle.
Antennae distinctly pubescent; 2nd joint elongate but stout; 3rd
more than half the length of 2nd, with a slender basal stalk ; joints 4-8
Broun. — New Genera cud Species of Coleoptera. 395
slightly dilated; 9th and 10th larger, transverse; 11th oviform, not as
long as the preceding two combined.
Evidently similar to the typical species (1835), darker, the head not
distinctly narrower than the thorax, which is not dull, and has no dis-
coidal impressions. The tarsal structure is precisely alike in both srjecies.
Length, nearly 2 nun, ; breadth, | mm.
Hunua flange, near Drury. I found one amongst decaying leaves
on the ground.
3183. Aphytopus granifer sp. npv.
Fuscous, slightly shining, with distinct suberect greyish pubescence,
the legs and basal joint only of the antennae testaceous.
Head about as broad as thorax, rather finely but not closely punc-
tured. Thorax narrower than elytra; its sides nearly straight, but
somewhat contracted in front, where it is narrower than the head; it is
slightly bi-impressed longitudinally from the base to beyond the middle;
its punctation is close and moderately coarse. Elytra oblong, hardly
double the length of thorax, shoulders a little rounded, the base incurved
so as to be adapted to that of the thorax; they are relatively coarsely
but not deeply or closely punctated. Hind-body elongate, with very fine,
distant, granular sculpture, which, however, is quite definite on the
basal segment.
Antennae elongate, finely pubescent, their 2nd joint as long as the
1st and nearly as stout, joints 3-6 about equal, oblong, 7th and 8th a
little shorter and broader, 9th and 10th rather broader, 11th about as
long as the preceding two together.
The granulation of the hind-body at once distinguishes this from
the foregoing species. The 3rd antennal joint is not stalk-like at
the base, and the terminal articulation seems unusually large. The
thoracic sculpture accords with the description of the type of the genus,
as is also the case regarding the peculiar tarsal structure.
Length, 2h mm. ; breadth, h mm.
Erua, near Waimarino Plains; elevation, 2,400ft. Two specimens
picked out of leaf-mould which Mr. W. J. Guinness collected for me in
April, 1910.
3184. Aphytopus guinnessi sp. no v.
Shining, castaneous, legs and basal two joints of antennae testaceous,
pubescence greyish.
Head broader than front of thorax, finely but not closely punctured.
Thorax seemingly rather longer than broad, curvedly narrowed in front,
the base curvate, without definite discoidal impressions, distinctly punc-
tate, not quite as closely on the middle as at the sides. Elytra oblong,
evidently broader than thorax, less so at the base, the shoulders being-
rounded; they are more distantly and less definitely sculptured than
the thorax. Hind-body elongate, slightly rufescent at the base, dark
fuscous behind, with fine, distant, ill-defined sculpture, not granulate.
Antennae elongate, 2nd joint quite as long as the 1st and nearly as
stout, 3rd about as long as the 4th but more slender at the base, 4-7
oblong, 8th slightly shorter and thicker than 7th but not quite as broad
as either of the following two, 11th nearly as long as the 9th and 10th
-conjointly.
Differentiated by the finer sculpture.
Length, 2-J- mm. : breadth, quite -|- mm.
396 Transactions.
Mount Ngauruhoe. Named in honour of Mr. W. J. (ruinness, who,
in March, 1910, gathered a bagful of decaying leaves, out of which 1
picked a specimen of this, as well as sonic other interesting species.
•SI 85. Calodera wallacei sp. nov. Calodera Mannerheim, Lacord. Hist.
des Ins. Coleopt.. torn. 2. p. 36.
Elongate, shining, rut'escent, hind-body rnfo-fuscous but with its
terminal segment as well as the legs fusco-testaceous, tarsi and palpi
yellow, antennae f ulvescent ; sparingly clothed with pale flavescent hairs,
these are more slender on the anterior parts of the body than on the
abdomen.
Head rather larger than thorax, its sides rounded, without per-
ceptible punctation. Eyes large, rather flat. Thorax oviform, of about
equal length and breadth, widest at the middle, the base finely margined
and slightly rounded, with nearly rectangular angles; the surface
minutely, remotely, and indistinctly punctate; at the middle of the
base there is a large fossa, from this a shallow linear impression pro-
ceeds towards the apex, in some aspects it seems a well-marked groove, in
others obsolete. Elytra subquadrate, about a third broader than thorax,
distinctly yet rather distantly punctured, with fine sutural striae. Hind-
body half of the whole length, parallel, a little narrower than the elytra,
its basal four segments strongly margined, each with transverse series
of punctiform impressions at the base, 5th minutely and distantly punc-
tured and subtruncate behind. Legs slender, with fine setae, tibiae
straight.
Antennae distinctly pubescent, elongate, gradually thickened from
the 3rd joint onwards, 2nd and 3rd almost equally elongate but shorter
than the 1st, 4th and 5th subquadrate. 7-10 strongly transverse, 11th
conical.
C. sericophora (2688) makes the nearest approach in facies, but its
head is narrower and less rounded, the eyes are a trifle more prominent,
the thoracic groove is deep throughout, and the 3rd antenna] joint is
shorter.
Length, 3-| mm. ; breadth, ft mm.
Wairiri, Kaikoura. Two examples found by Mr. W. L. Wallace,
whose name is attached to it.
3186. Calodera fultoni sp. nov.
Nitid, castaneo-rufous, labrum, palpi, and tarsi paler; pubescence
elongate and slender, flavescent, more scanty on the head and thorax
than elsewhere.
Head nearly as large as the thorax, rounded behind the slightly
convex eyes, very distinctly and moderately closely punctate; clypeus
membranous and pallid. Thorax oviform, as long as broad, its sides
rounded, a little wider before the middle than behind, the base finely
margined and feebly curved with obtuse angles ; its punctation is like
that of the head, only slightly finer, the dorsal furrow is distinct and
more expanded near the base than in front. Scutellum closely punctate.
Elytra subquadrate, broader than the thorax, each with a deep apical
sinuosity near the side; with fine sutural striae, their sculpture not
quite as close or definite as that of the thorax. Hind-body parallel,
narrower than the wing-cases, about as long as the rest of the body,
more or less distinctly but not closely punctured, its segments of about
Broun. — New Genera and Species- of Coleoptera. 397
equal length, the 5th truncate at the apex, 6th rounded and paler. Legs
elongate, finely setose, tibiae straight.
Antennae nearly as long as the head and thorax, with slender elon-
gate pubescence, 3rd joint of about the same length as the 1st or 2nd,
4th subquadrate, joints 5-10 become more transverse, 11th conical.
In some respects like C. diver sa (2690); the body and legs more
slender, more uniformly coloured, and the elytra without the dense
silky yellow pubescence.
Length. 4— 4| mm. ; breadth, H mm.
Taieri, Otago. Three examples from Mr. S. W. Fulton. A speci-
men, along with some other species, sent to M. Albert Fauvel, of Caen,
many years ago was named as above, but, so far as 1 can ascertain,
has remained undescribed.
3187. Myrmecopora funesta sp. nov. Mt/rmecopora Saulcy, Ann. France,
1864. p. 429.
Subopaque, nigrescent, legs .and antennae fuscous, mandibles rtifes-
cent, head, thorax, and elytra with dense, excessively minute, somewhat
coriaceous sculpture; pubescence close, but easily brushed off, greyish,
rather short and slender, longer and coarser on the abdomen.
Head about as large as the thorax, subquadrate, posterior angles
rounded, with some minute punctures. Clypeus membranous, but not
pallid. Labrum transverse, truncate in front. Mandibles thick, cur-
vate and acute at the extremity, with a median inner denticle. Eyes
moderately large, longitudinally oval, slightly convex. Maxillary palpi
long and stout, penultimate joint thickly pubescent, the terminal acicu-
late and rather small. Thorax quadrate, rather broader than long, with
obliquely rounded anterior angles; the base margined and slightly
rounded, with nearly rectangular angles; a more or less evident central
groove extends from the apex to the basal fovea. Scutellum triangular.
Elytra nearly twice as long and broad as the thorax, quadrate, their
apices obliquely curvate towards the suture ; with fine sutural striae,
somewhat depressed behind the scutellum. Hind-body subparallel, rather
narrower than elytra at the base, the basal five segments of about equal
length, very finely distantly and indistinctly punctured, 6th segment
narrower than 5th, 7th obconical, as broad as the 6th at the base.
Underside opaque, nigrescent, densely and very finely sculptured,
thickly covered with slender grey pubescence.
Antennae elongate, reaching backwards nearly as far as the inter-
mediate femora, distinctly pubescent, their basal three joints equally
long, joints 4-10 very gradually thickened and abbreviated, the 10th,
however, is not perceptibly transverse, 11th oblong-oval, about as long
as the obconical 9th and 10th combined.
In M. Fauvel's description* of the Australian .1/. senilis, to which
M. funesta is closely allied, the frontal pubescence is stated to be of a
greenish hue, the thorax not at all transverse, and the basal dorsal seg-
ments 2-5 subcarinate along the middle. These characters of themselves
are enough for specific discrimination.
Length, 3§ mm. ; breadth, 1mm.
Broken River, Canterbury. Discovered by Mr. J. H. Lewis, in
December, 1907.
*Hiat. nat. les Staphylinides do 1'Australie et de la Polynesie, 1879, p. 118.
398 Transactions.
188. Myrmecopora granulata sp. nov.
Nitid, quite black, legs fuscous, tarsi ruf o-f uscous ; elytra with very
short suberect greyish pubescence; other parts, the hind-body especi-
ally, with very few elongate suberect hairs.
Head, in line with the eyes, quite as broad as the thorax, rounded
behind, its narrow anterior portion as long as the basal; its punctation
rather shallow yet quite distinct, finer and more distant near the
antennae. Thorax fully as long as broad, its apical portion, about a
third of the whole length, obliquely narrowed so that the front is just
about a third of the width of the head; the median basal fossa is well
marked, but the longitudinal impression proceeding from it does not
attain the apex ; it is minutely and distantly punctured. Elytra sub-
oblong, not quite as broad as long, nearly double the length and breadth
of the thorax, their punctation close and distinct, rather shallow, and
becoming finer and more distant near the sides and base, with fine
sutural striae. Hind-body glossy, nearly twice the length of the wing-
cases, hardly as wide as they are; basal four segments almost equal,
transversely impressed at the base; the first three with indistinct
granular sculpture, the granules on the 4th quite definite, on the 5th
they are conspicuous, the 6th is retracted in my specimen, its apex is
medially emarginate and has granular sculpture.
Antennae elongate, attaining the middle femora, thickly pubescent,
2nd joint elongate yet rather shorter than the 1st or 3rd, joints 4-10 suc-
cessively though only slightly shortened, the 10th, nevertheless, is nearly
twice as long as broad; these 7 articulations are elongate-obconical, and
therefore appear subserrate; 11th elongate-oval, rather larger than the
10th.
This, as regards the shape of the thorax, more nearly resembles the
unique Australian sjiecies so far as can be judged by description alone,
but there the likeness ends. The distinct punctation of the head and
elytra is very different, whilst the remarkable sculpture of the 5th abdo-
minal segment is very distinctive. M. fugax, belonging to Sardinia and
Palestine, I have not seen. M. granulata is nearly twice the size of
M. senilis.
Length, 6 mm.; breadth, lh mm.
Broken River. A solitary individual sent to me bv Mr. J. H. Lewis.
Group Stafhylinidae.
3189. Quedius eruensis sp. nov. Quedius Stephens, Lacord. Hist, des
Ins. Coleopt., torn. 2, p. 84.
Narrow, elongate, head and thorax shining black and slightly bronzed,
elytra and hind-body fuscous, the latter often blackish and iridescent ;
the femora, anterior tibiae, and basal three joints of antennae fusco-
rufous or f ulvescent ; remaining joints dull fuscous; mandibles rufous.
Head oval, rather narrower than thorax, bipunctate behind and also
in line with the inner margin of the eyes, and with a smaller setigerous
puncture near the front of each eye. Clypeus membranous, not pallid.
Labium deeply emarginate in front. Eyes large, not prominent. Man-
dibles short. Thorax rather broader than long, gently narrowed an-
teriorly, posterior angles broadly rounded ; with 8 more or less distinct
punctures before the middle, and a like number close to the base, but
only unipunctate at the sides. Scutellum triangular. Elytra short,
Broun. — New Genera <ui<l Species of Coleoptera. 399
nearly twice as broad as long, their apices oblique towards the suture;
they are closely sculptured and covered with yellowish pubescence. Hind-
body elongate," 6th segment broadly rounded behind, terminal styles piceo-
rufous, the punctation and vestiture resembling those of the wing-cases.
Underside nitid, finely pubescent and punctate, abdomen varying
from violaceous to fuscous. Anterior tarsi of the male strongly dilated.
Antennae densely pubescent from their 4th joint onwards, 2nd as
long as 3rd, 10th slightly oblong.
Like Q. aeneiventris (3035), darker, the hind-body especially, and
never with any brassy lustre.
Length, 6-7 mm. ; breadth, quite 1 mm.
Erua. Found by myself in January, 1910; also amongst dead leaves
collected by Mr. W. J. Guinness in March and April.
3190. Quedius xenophaenus sp. nov.
Elongate, not parallel, nitid ; head, thorax, and legs rufo-castaneous,
the elytra and hind-body fuscous, the latter somewhat violaceous, antennae
infuscate, their basal four joints paler.
Head subquadrate, evenly convex, narrower than thorax, with a pair
of minute shallow punctures behind. Eyes rotundate, not prominent,
rather small, situated at the sides near the front, with distinct facets.
Mandibles moderately elongate, falciform, the right with a large acute
inner tooth behind the middle, the left with 4 or 5 denticles. Ihorax a
third broader than long, gently narrowed towards the truncate apex,
with slender lateral margins, posterior angles obtuse but not broadly
rounded, with a pair of feebly impressed minute frontal punctures.
Scutellum exactly triangular, smooth. Elytra, in the middle, quite twice
as broad as long, apices oblique towards the suture, moderately finely
and closely sculptured, sparingly clothed with short cinereous pubescence.
Hind-body elongate, gradually attenuate posteriorly, with slight elongate
impressions or punctures, terminal styles rufo-piceous, its vestiture de-
pressed, elongate and slender, of an ashy colour.
Antennae pubescent, their 2nd joint rather shorter than 3rd or 4th.
Forehead truncate between the antennae. Clypeus short and vertical,
membranous. Labrum large, testaceous, with 3 frontal notches, so as
to be medially bidentate, and bearing . some elongate setae. Tarsi
pentamerous, basal joints of the anterior only moderately dilated.
Of peculiar aspect, head particularly.
Length, 6 mm.; breadth, 1J mm.
Waimarino. Unique. Found in January, 1910, at an altitude of
2,700 ft.
Group i :dkridak.
3191. Lithocharis longipennis sp. nov. Lithocharis Lacordaire, Hist, des
Ins. Coleopt., torn. 2, p. 94.
Subdepressed, elongate, nitid; hind-body clothed with elongate, sub-
erect, infuscate hairs; the rest of the body very scantily pubescent; head
and thorax nigrescent; elytra, legs, and antennae castaneous; tarsi and
palpi somewhat fulvescent ; mandibles reddish; abdomen dark fuscous.
Head oviform and, including the mandibles, a third longer than
broad, the forehead truncate in front, with moderately elevated rufescent
antennal tubercles; its punctation distinct, almost coarse, but nowhere
very close; in front of the middle there is an obsolete longitudinal im-
400 Transactions.
pression. Thorax oblong, its length nearly double the breadth, curvedly
narrowed in front, its sides nearly straight, posterior angles rounded;
it is smooth along the middle, with a shallow linear impression which
does not reach the apex ; its punctation is a little liner than that of the
head, and subseriate near the middle. Elytra oblong, a third longer
than the thorax, rather broader than it is; apices obliquely truncate
towards the suture, which is sharply defined but without definite striae;
their sculpture is rather shallow and subseriate. Hind-body parallel,
rather longer but not broader than the wing-cases, 5th segment rather
longer than the others, the 6th much smaller and paler, its sculpture
indefinite, subgranular.
Antennae elongate, filiform, pubescent; basal joint stout, not much
shorter than the following two combined, 2nd shorter than the elongate
3rd, joints 4-10 evidently longer than broad, the terminal elongate-oval,
subacurninate, hardly larger than the penultimate.
Maxillary palpi stout, hairy, their 3rd joint gradually incrassate to-
wards the extremity, the terminal minute. Labrum fusco-rufous, large,
deeply triangularly impressed in the middle. Legs elongate, anterior
femora thick; tibiae finely setose, the posterior thickened near the ex-
tremity ; front tarsi with strongly dilated basal joints, which, taken
together, hardly exceed the slender terminal joint in length.
This species is chiefly remarkable for its elongated thorax and elytra.
S- Length, 7 mm; breadth, 1J mm.
Westport. Commander J. J. Walker, R.N., before he left New Zea-
land gave me a specimen, marked 15. Another from Mr. G. V. Hudson,
under the number 254, measures 5 mm. by 1 mm., but otherwise accords
almost exactly with the above description.
3192. Dimerus whitehorni sp. nov. Dimerus Fauvel.
Slender, elongate, slightly transversely convex, nitid; rufescent, legs
paler, the antennae, palpi, mandibles, and tarsi flavescent.
Head large, somewhat rounded, broader than thorax, abruptly con-
tracted behind, finely and distantly punctured. Thorax nearly twice
as long as broad, widest near the front, moderately rounded there,
gradually narrowed backwards, base and apex subtruncate ; its surface
densely and minutely sculptured, with a few distinct remote punctures
and an elongate central fovea. Elytra very short, widest behind, much
curvedly narrowed towards the base, which is no broader than that of
the thorax, their apices obliquely truncate towards the sutiire; they are
relatively coarsely but not closely punctate, and bear some depressed
greyish hairs. Hind-body elongate, parallel, quite half of the whole
length, basal segment as long as the elytra, each of the following four
slightly narrowed towards the base, the 6th segment transversely quad-
rate, 7th obconical; the pubescence is pale-yellowish, and the punctation
is moderately coarse, but not close.
Underside shining, rufo-castaneous, moderately coarsely punctured,
clothed with distinct yellowish hairs. Prosternum with its flanks dis-
tinctly marked off by oblique sutures, the coxae situated at its base.
Mesosternum longer than metasternum.
Eyes longitudinal, occupying quite half of the whole sides of the
head, moderately prominent, with coarse facets. Mandibles as long as
the head, falciform, with a very elongate median tooth on the inner
side of each. Maxillary palpi not very much shorter than the antennae,
the basal joint slender and elongate, the terminal large, elongate-ovate.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 401
Antennae inserted on the sides of the forehead at sume distance from
the eyes, 10-articulate ; basal joint stout and nearly the length of the
following two combined, 2nd slightly shorter than 3rd, 6th a little
larger than 5th, 7th moniliform and rather smaller than adjoining
ones, 9th abruptly enlarged, subquadrate, 10th" longer, conical.
Legs elongate, tibiae unarmed; tarsi slender, pentamerous.
Length, 2 nun. ; breadth, -£ mm.
Retaruke, near Erua. Four individuals of this extremely slender
but interesting beetle were found amongst leaf-mould collected for me
in March, 1910, by Captain H. S. Whitehom, in whose honour it has
been named.
Obs. — Many years ago I sent a specimen of the first species 1 had
found to M. Albert Fauvel, of Caen, one of the greatest European
authorities on Staphylinidae, who named it Dimerus brouni. It evi-
dently represented a new genus, but I have been unable to obtain its
description. The name Dimerus has now been used for one of the
Pselaphidae by Fiori, and a copy of the diagnosis published in Atti
Soc. dei Naturalisti di Modena, 1899, vol. 32, p. 103, is now in my
possession, having been written for me by Mr. C. O. Waterhouse at the
British Museum.
Group Osokiidae.
3193. Holotrochus setigerus sp. nov. Holotrochus Erichson, Lacord.
Hist, des Ins. Coleopt., torn. 2, p. 113.
Cylindrical, shining; nigrescent; posterior angles of thorax, the
labrum, legs, and antennae rufous ; sparingly clothed with suberect,
slender, yellowish setae.
Head narrower than thorax, with distinct, remote punctures. Eyes
minute. Thorax . rather broader than long, gradually narrowed an-
teriorly, irregularly, moderately coarsely and distantly punctate. Elytra
twice as broad as long, with a basal impression near each side, their
sculpture nearly the same as that of the thorax. Hind-body elongate,
distinctly and distantly punctured, 5th segment largest, 7th bispinose
at the extremity.
Tibiae straight, the anterior with about 6 minute spines along the
outside, intermediate with more, posterior with 2 or 3 only.
Antennae with the 3rd joint rather longer than 2nd, 4th distinctly
smaller than 5th, 10th about as loug as the conical terminal joint.
Easily recognized by the rather coarse irregular punctation and sub-
erect setae.
Length, 3J mm. ; breadth, 1 mm.
Greymouth. I am indebted to Mr. J. H. Lewis for a specimen.
06.S-. — One description I have been unable to get, so it is just possible
that the missing one, Dr. Eppelsheim's H. brachyptems, may prove to
be identical with H . setigerus.
Group OXYTELIDAK.
3194. Bledius bidentifrons sp. nov. Bledius Leach. Lacord. Hist, des
Ins. Coleopt., torn. 2. p. 114.
Elongate, narrow, nigrescent;* head, thorax, and elytra rather dull,
with greyish setae, those on the elytra suberect and much shorter than
the others; hind-body glossy black, and bearing numerous elongate,
402 Transactions.
conspicuous, flavescent hairs; antennae and legs somewhat infuscate,
the tarsi and posterior tibiae testaceous.
Head prolonged and much narrowed anteriorly, with a denticle near
each eye just over the point of antennal insertion; it is densely and
minutely subgranulate, and, if carefully examined, some fine scattered
punctures may be seen. Eyes transversely oval, convex, and very pro-
minent, with coarse facets. Thorax cor di form, rather broader than
long, widely emarginate in front, so that the angles seem slightly pro-
minent, its sides moderately rounded near the front, very much so
towards the base, so that there is hardly any trace of posterior angles;
its sculpture is like that of the head, along the middle there is a glabrous
indistinctly marked line. Elytra not closely applied to the thorax, rather
longer than it is, subquadrate, with broadly curved apices; their punc-
t at ion moderately close, rather shallow, and not very distinct. Hind-
body nearly double the length of, but quite perceptibly narrower than,
the wing-cases, strongly margined laterally as far as the 5th segment,
with finely transversely strigose or rugose sculpture; the 6th segment
widely, yet slightly, incurved behind; 7th short, rounded; these last
with a few fine punctures.
Legs finely setose; tibiae straight, not incrassate; the anterior with
8 or 10 slender spines along the outside, the lower ones most distinct,
the' second series I fail to detect with any degree of certainty; inter-
mediate with double series of about 5, the posterior tibiae longer than
the others, with slender spines below the middle. Tarsi slender, the
terminal joint of the hmd pair twice the length of the basal two
combined.
Antennae geniculate, inserted below the sides of the forehead, finely
pubescent; basal joint stout, about half of the entire length; 2nd thicker
than 3rd, the 6th rather smaller than adjoining ones; joints 7-9 laxly
articulated and broader than preceding ones, 11th narrower than 10th
and closely adapted to it.
Maxillary palpi stout, penultimate joint hairy and rather large, the
terminal aciculate, but quite easily seen. Mandibles porrect, elongate,
rufescent, slightly curved towards the extremity, with a small tooth on
the inside before the middle.
Length, 4 mm.; breadth, 1mm.
Wanganui Beach. Described from a refractory alcoholic specimen
forwarded by Professor Chilton, but found by Dr. L. Cockayne. It is
no doubt a female, and is the first of this genus discovered in New Zea-
land. In all the European and Australian species in my possession the
head and thorax of the males are furnished with more or less distinct
horns.
Group PSELAPHIDAE.
3195. Sago la monticola sp. no v. Sagola Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 134.
Subdepressed, elongate, nitid; pubescence yellowish, slender, and
elongate, intermingled with longer erect hairs on the elytra and hind-
body; head and thorax red; elytra, legs, antennae, and palpi fulves-
cent ; hind-body rufo-castaneous; tarsi yellow
Head trigonal, dilated and prominent laterally behind so as to be
as broad there as the middle of thorax," the median channel extends from
the antennal tubercles to the back, where it becomes linear, and there is
a narrow basal fovea at each side of it; there are no distinct punctures.
Bhoun. — New Genera and Species of Coleopteva. 403
Eves evidently prominent. Thorax of about equal length and breadth,
widest and strongly rounded just before the middle; obliquely narrowed
in front, where it is only half the width of the head, with a deep fovea
at each side extending from behind the middle to the basal margin, this
part therefore is much contracted; the dorsal fovea behind the centre,
though large, is not transverse, there is a basal puncture at each side
of it. Elytra nearly twice the length of the thorax, gradually narrowed
towards yet broader at the base than the thorax, slightly eurvedly
narrowed behind; sutural striae well marked; the intrahumeral
impressions consist each of a basal puncture and a more elongated fovea.
Hind-body a third longer than the elytra, indistinctly punctate; the
basal three segments broadly margined and of about equal length; the
terminal ones, combined, obconical and acuminate, and much paler.
Legs elongate, simple; 2nd tarsal joint distinctly prolonged under-
neath.
Antennae elongate; basal joint reddish, cylindric, almost as long as
the following two together; 3rd longer than broad, but distinctly narrower
than the adjoining ones; 4th and 5th equal, longer than broad; 6th
slightly shorter; 7th and 8th truncate at the base, a little narrowed
apically; 9th and 10th transversely quadrate; 11th conical and acumi-
nate.
When placed alongside «S'. eminens (2T24) this species is seen to be
less robust, the head is not quite truncate at the base, its hind angles
are less prolonged outwardly and are slightly deflexed, the basal foveae
are smaller, but the eyes are more prominent; the thorax is narrower
and the elytra longer, and, moreover, the dilated hind angles of the
head are not concave underneath.
Female. — Genae nearly straight behind the eyes, with obtuse, but not
at all dilated, posterior angles; lighter in colour, and with more pro-
minent eyes than the same sex of 2724; the sides of the thorax are less
dilated before the middle, and the legs are more slender. On the under-
side of the head there is a well-marked transverse depression.
Length, 2^ mm. ; breadth, § mm.
Mount Ngauruhoe. A single male and two females found amongst
decayed leaves which were gathered for me by Mr. W. J. Guinness.
Obs. — 2724 was discovered at Tarukenga, near Rotorua, and I found
one male at Waimarino in January, 1909.
3196. Euglyptus foveicollis sp. no v. Euglyptus Broun, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 1411.
Slender, slightly convex, shining; rufous; elytra, legs, and antennae
fulvescent ; palpi, tarsi, and terminal joint of antennae flavescent ; pubes-
cence greyish, suberect, rather scanty.
Head obliquely narrowed behind, where it is slightly broader than
the apex of the thorax; including the large eyes, much wider; it is,
proportionally, moderately coarsely punetate, with an indistinct median
stria behind, the prominent antenna! tubercles separated by a distinct
but not wide channel. Thorax slightly longer than broad, widest and
obtusely prominent at the middle, more narrowed in front than behind;
a transverse impression near the base connects the elongate lateral foveae;
the discoidal fovea is elongate, but does not reach the basal impression;
its punctation is indistinct. Elytra nearly twice the length of thorax,
verv little broader than it is at the base, wider near the middle, their
4<M Transactions.
sides gently rounded; they are not perceptibly punctate; the sutural
striae are rather fine, but are foveiform and deep at the base; the intra-
humeral impression on each is also foveiform, so that the shoulder and
the interval between the impression and the sutural fovea appear elevated.
Hind-body shorter than the elytra, narrowed and deflexed posteriorly;
the 1st dorsal segment horizontal, with a curvate basal depression; it is
slightly longer than either the 2nd or 3rd.
Antennae elongate, basal joint thicker but only a little longer than
the 2nd, joints .3-5 quite oblong, 6-8 hardly as long as broad, 9th quite
double the size of the 8th; 10th evidently broader than 9th, laxly articu-
lated at the base, but closely applied to the 11th, which is large, conical,
and acuminate; these 3 terminal articulations bear numerous slender
but elongate hairs, and form a well-marked club.
The thoracic sculpture and abbreviated humeral impressions are very
different from those of E. elegans (2460). On the other hand, it does
not agree very well with the type of the nearly allied genus Mivrotyrus
(2461). The position assigned to it and the following species is there-
fore between these genera. There is no other systematic place for them.
Length, H mm. ; breadth, \ mm.
Retaruke, near Erua. Described from a single specimen picked out
of decayed leaves collected for me in March, 1910, by Captain H. S.
Whitehorn, of the Geological Survey Department.
3197. Euglyptus longicornis sp. nov.
Nitid, rufous; elytra, legs, and antennae fulvescent; tarsi and palpi
testaceous.
Head rather smaller than thorax, though nearly as broad, coarsely
punctate, with a smooth median linear impression behind, and a distinct
interantennal channel. Thorax suboviform, widest near the middle,
indefinitely punctured; the broad mesial groove extends into the angular
fossa near the base; the latter is united to the lateral foveae by a trans-
verse stria. Elytra quadrifoveate, conjointly, at the base, with well-
marked sutural striae but abbreviated humeral impressions. Basal dorsal
segment with a transverse basal impression ; this I consider a generic
and not a sexual character.
Antennae stout and elongate, basal joint evidently longer and thicker
than the oblong 2nd, 3-5 also oblong, the 4th very slightly shorter than
either of the adjoining ones, 6-8 moniliform, 9th distinctly longer than
bioad; 10th subquadrate, a little stouter than its predecessor, but not
at all closely adapted to the base of the 11th, which is large, conical,
and acuminate.
Manifestly different from E . foveicollis ; rather more robust, the eyes
less convex, the thoracic median groove not foveiform or shortened, the
legs longer, the anterior pair especially, whilst the more elongate an-
tennae, witli their laxly articulated 10th and 11th joints, form an addi-
tional and easily seen distinctive character.
Length, 1§ mm. ; breadth, § mm.
Raurimu. I obtained my specimen amongst damp decayed leaves at
the bottom of a steep ravine. Owing to the dense vegetation and slippery
banks, the descent marked skin and clothing, but did not occupy much
time; getting up again loaded with all my collecting gear and mud
was a very different affair. 1 remember the date — 28th January, 1910.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 405
3198. Euplectopsis longicollis Reitter. Euplectopsis Raffray. Trichonyx,
Verb. d. naturf. ver. Brunn.. vol. 18, p. 4.
Narrow, rufescent, densely clothed with short greyish hairs.
Head somewhat narrower than thorax, much narrowed in front, genae
parallel, punctate, with 2 convergent furrows. Thorax somewhat longer
than broad, widest before the middle; finely and closely punctate, with
3 foveae near the base, the lateral largest, these connected by a trans-
verse furrow; dorsal groove abbreviated. Elytra distinctly broader than
thorax, and almost 1J times its length, closely but hardly visibly punc-
tured, sutural striae entire, the intrahumeral duplicated. Tarsi with
2 unequal claws.
Antennae with joints 4-8 globose, not oblong, the terminal three
abruptly increase, the two penultimate slightly transverse.
Length, 1*8-2 mm.
Greymouth. Mr. R. Helms.
3199. Euplectopsis microcephalus Reitter. Trichonyx. Verh. d. naturf.
ver. Brunn., vol. 18, p. 5.
Narrow, rufescent, very sparingly pubescent, nitid.
Head small, much narrower than thorax, slightly punctured, with 2
short frontal grooves terminating behind in large deep foveae and con-
vergent in front. Thorax as long as broad, strongly widened and
rounded before the middle, finely punctate, trifoveate near the base.
Elytra wider than thorax, 1| times longer; between the sutural and basal
grooves there is a short basal linear impression.
Antennae with joints 4-8 subglobose, the oth and 7th slightly oblong,
the last three abruptly larger, 9th and 10th of equal breadth, transverse.
Like Trichonyx longicollis, with a smaller head, deeper frontal fossae,
less evidently clothed, more glossy, and of a brighter red.
Length, 2 mm.
Greymouth. Mr. R. Helms.
3200. Euplectopsis brevicollis Reitter. Trichonyx. Verh. d. naturf. ver.
Brunn., vol. 18, p. 6.
Narrow, rufescent, with silky pubescence.
Head somewhat narrower than thorax, with 2 short subparallel grooves
nearly united in front and ending behind in foveae. Thorax somewhat
broader than long, narrowed behind, finely punctate, the three basal
foveae situated in the transversal furrow, the median longitudinal groove
abbreviated in front, in the middle almost foveiform. Elytra similar
to those of Trichonyx microcephalus.
Antennae with joints 4, 6, and 8 slightly transverse, 5th and 7th
quadrate-globose, the two penultimate nearly equal, moderately trans-
verse, 11th large.
Length, 1*3 mm.
Greymouth. Mr. R. Helms.
3201. Euplectopsis rotundicollis Reitter. Trichonyx. Verh. d. naturf. ver.
Brunn.. vol. 18, p. 6.
Narrow, rufescent, with silky pubescence.
Head almost rotundate, very little narrower than thorax, punctulated,
bi-impressed in front.- Thorax nearly round, with 3 basal foveae situated
in the transversal furrow, the intermediate fovea small, discoidal stria
406 Transactions.
abbreviated, the lateral sulci slightly impressed. Elytra broader and
1^ times longer than thorax. Basal dorsal segment distinctly punctu-
lated, the striolae scarcely visible. Antennae with joints 4-10 globose,
transverse, gradually incrassate.
Nearly related to the two preceding species, with shorter, gradually
thickened antennae, the head more rounded, lateral grooves of thorax
nearly absent, basal dorsal segment distinctly punctulate.
Length, 1*2— 1"3 mm.
Greymouth. Mr. R. Helms.
202. Euplectopsis trichonyformis Reitter. Euplectus, Verh. d. naturf.
ver. Brunn., vol. 18, p. 7.
Rufescent, moderately convex, shining, sparsely and finely pubescent.
Head a little narrower than thorax, smooth, with 2 short subparallel
grooves united in front, posterior i'oveae deeply impressed. Thorax almost
wider than long, scarcely punctate, discoidal sulcus much abbreviated.
Elytra 1| times longer than thorax.
Length, 1'8 mm.
Grevmouth. Mr. K. Helms.
3203. Euplectopsis schizocnemis sp. nov.
Elongate, moderately convex, shining; rufo-fulvous, elytra and legs
of a lighter hue, tarsi flavescent; with slender yellowish pubescence and
.some long, erect, slender setae.
Head smaller than thorax, rounded behind the rather small but very
prominent eyes, indistinctly punctate, interocular fovae prolonged as far
as the elevated and somewhat widely separated antennal tubercles, and
with a minute central carina behind. Thorax oviform, slightly longer
than broad, more narrowed towards the front than behind, its base a
little rounded ; it is indistinctly punctured ; the median groove is very
thin, with sharply defined edges, it assumes the form of a slender carina
towards the base, and thus divides the large ante-basal fossa; the lateral
foveae are large; the basal margin is minutely asperate, but without
well-marked punctures. Elytra but little longer than thorax, rathei
broader than thorax at the base, a little dilated behind, apices truncate;
sutural striae well marked, the intrahumeral impression broad and mode-
rately deep at the base, so that the inner margin and the shoulder seem
.slightly elevated ; there are no perceptible punctiform foveae at the base.
Hind-body shorter than elytra, the basal segment with a slight transverse
impression, which is limited at each side by a slightly curved carina;
2nd segment, in the middle, fully as long as the 1st; the others deflexed.
Legs elongate, the anterior and intermediate femora arched above and
robust, the latter especially; intermediate tibiae shorter than the others,
gradually dilated to about double the width of the posterior pair, and.
at the extremity, with a deep triangular excision, the protruding inner
portion thicker than the outer.
Antennae inserted in deep cavities in front of the eyes, so that the
basal joint appears to be no longer or thicker than the oblong 2nd; 3rd
obconical, a little longer than broad ; joints 4-7 submoniliform, the 6th
a little smaller than the others; 8th short and transverse; 0th abruptly
enlarged, subquadrate, somewhat oblique at one side in front; 10th trans-
verse, unsymmetrical ; 11th largest, ovate and acuminate; the club there-
fore is evidently triarticulate.
Bbouk. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 407
E. eminens (1700) is somewhat similar, but its head is distinctly
broader in line with the eyes. It may be at once separated by the coarsely
punctate head and thorax and by joints 4—10 of the antennae being more
or less strongly transverse.
<$ . Length, 2 mm.; breadth, § mm.
Retaruke, near Erua. I secured a single male out of leaf-mould
kindly collected for me in March, 1910, by Captain H. S. Whitehorn,
of the Geological Survey Department, and I secured a female at Erua in
January.
3204. Euplectopsis carinatus sp. nov.
Elongate, moderately convex, nitid; rufous; elytra, legs, and an-
tennae lighter, yet not quite fulvescent; tarsi yellowish; pubescence
distinct, greyish, very scanty on the head and thorax, the setae out-
standing, slender and long; legs also pubescent.
Head smaller than thorax, but, including the very prominent eyes,
not much narrower than it is, curvedly narrowed behind; the middle is
somewhat depressed as far as the prominent antenna! tubercles; there are
no well-marked foveae, but the middle of the occiput is elevated, and,
when examined in some lights, appears tubercular ; the sides are, rela-
tively, coarsely but not deeply punctate. Thorax suboviform, widest near
the middle, its smooth anterior portion much narrowed, so that the back
of the head exceeds it in breadth; the sides and base have moderately
coarse punctures, some of these are encircled by raised margins; the
smooth central portion is subcarinate almost from front to base ; this
carina has a thin, sharply impressed groove, and it divides the large
fossa near the base; the lateral foveae are elongate. Elytra subquadrate,
broader than the thorax; sutural striae well marked, intrahumeral im-
pressions deep at the base, the interval between each and the suture seems
slightly raised half-way along each elytron; there are no distinct basal
punctures. Hind-body shorter than elytra, the slight transverse impres-
sion in front of the basal segment has curvate external margins.
Legs elongate; front and middle femora very thick and arched above;
intermediate tibiae shorter than the others, gradually yet considerably
expanded, with a short notch at the middle of the extremity.
Antennae with distinct pubescence; their 2nd joint equals the visible
portion of the 1st; 3rd obconical, a little longer than broad, smaller than
2nd; joints 4—8 short, 6th and 8th rather smaller than 7th; 9th abruptly
enlarged, broader than long; 10th transverse, slightly broader but shorter
than 9th; 11th quite as long as the preceding two taken together, conical,
acuminate.
This must be placed near E. eminens (1700), which differs in having
less-prominent eyes, and thicker, shorter, differently formed antennae, Sze.
6*. Length, If mm. ; breadth, § mm.
Mount Te Aroha. One, found by myself. A second specimen is most
likely the female, but it is almost wholly pitchy red ; the anterior femora
are as thick as those of the male, and the terminal joint of the antennae
is similarly prolonged and acuminate.
3205. Euplectopsis antennalis sp. nov.
Elongate, moderately convex, shining; fusco-rufous, the elytra, palpi,
and terminal joint of antennae fulvescent, tarsi testaceous; head and
thorax sparingly, elytra and hind-body thickly, clothed with flavescent
hairs and slender elongate setae.
408 Transactions.
Head evidently smaller than thorax, rounded behind, yet broader there
than the thoracic apex; basal fossae indistinct, the broad median depres-
sion extends forwards between the prominent antennal tubercles; the
sculpture indefinite, consisting apparently of small granules with a minute
puncture in each. Eyes moderately large and prominent, with coarse
facets. Thorax suboviform, of about equal length and breadth, rather
wider before the middle than elsewhere, rounded there, a good deal
narrowed anteriorly ; the mesial longitudinal sulcus is well marked, and
ends in the basal fossa, which is joined to the elongate fovea at each
side by distinct grooves; its. sculpture is like that of the head. Elytra
a third longer than thorax, rather broader than it is at the base, with
rounded shoulders; apices slightly oblique towards the suture, with
minute distant sculpture; sutural striae deep, intrahumeral impressions
short, each elytron tripunctate at the base, the punctures, however, are in
the striae. Hind-body shorter than the elytra, its basal three segments
nearly equal, the 1st with a deep transverse basal impression, with cari-
nate sides, the 2nd with a similar but more linear impression.
Legs elongate; anterior femora thicker than the others; tibiae un-
armed; all moderately arched outwardly, the front pair with more con-
spicuous pubescence near the extremity.
Antennae stout, bearing rather elongate pubescence; their 2nd joint
almost oval, as thick and long as the uncovered portion of the basal;
3rd nearly as long as broad, bead-like; joints 4—6 transverse, differing
but little; 7th and 8th abruptly broader, unsymmetrical, thinner at the
inner than at the outer sides; 9th and 10th transverse, still more en-
larged, but not double the breadth of the preceding pair, both broad at
the base but much narrowed in front; 11th conical, as broad as the 10th,
but not as long as the 9th and 10th combined; at its base, on the inside,
there is an obtuse tubercle.
There is no necessity for comparison with other species, as the very
remarkable antennae are abundantly distinctive
<$. Length, 2 mm. ; breadth, § mm.
Mount Ngauruhoe. One individual, picked out of a bagful of decay-
ing leaves sent to me by Mr. W. J. Guinness in March, 1910.
3206. Euplectopsis eruensis sp. nov.
Elongate, moderately convex, nitid; rufous; legs and antennae paler,
tarsi flavescent ; pubescence greyish-yellow, suberect.
Head evidently smaller than thorax, nearly straight behind the small
eyes, a little uneven and slightly asperate, but without well-marked foveae
or punctures. Thorax suboviform, a little broader just before the middle
than it is elsewhere, rather longer than broad, indistinctly punctate;
median sulcus narrow, sharply marked, extending into and dividing the
basal fossa and becoming cariniform at the base; lateral foveae large,
each with a slight groove uniting it to the basal fossa. Elytra subquad-
rate, not exceeding the thorax in length, curvedly narrowed near the
base; sutural striae deep and foveiform at the base, intrahumeral im-
pressions also deep at the base but shallow towards the middle. Hind-
body as long as the elytra, the basal two segments horizontal, 3rd slightly
deflexed and shorter than 2nd, the 1st visible segment medially flattened
towards its base, and with a pair of curved carinae there.
Legs moderately stout, anterior femora thicker than the others, all the
tibiae slightly dilated and curved below the middle.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 409
Antennae with slender pubescence, their oblong 2nd joint nut quite as
stout but about as long as the 1st; 3rd obconical, slightly longer than
broad; joints 4-6 bead-like, and of about the same length and breadth;
7th and 8th slightly larger, narrowed towards the apex; 9th and
10th rather larger, both narrowed apicallj; 11th largest, conical, sub-
acuminate.
Unders* de shining, with suberect greyish pubescence. Head studded
with minute but quite definite granules, and bearing erect slender setae.
Presternum medially carinate. Anterior femora broadly grooved, all dis-
tinctly pubescent. Metasternum unimpressed. Abdomen elongate; basal
segment but little exposed, fringed behind; 2nd and 3rd about equal,
each longer than 4th or 5th ; 6th finely and distantly punctured, in the
middle nearly double the length of the 5th, with a slender basal margin,
and, at the apex, with a median semicircular carina.
At once separable from E . heterarthrus by its 2nd antennal joint being
thinner than the 1st.
Length, 1§ mm. ; breadth, quite ^ mm.
Erua. The typical specimen was found by me in January, 1910, and
two or three others were picked out of leaf-mould collected two months
afterwards by Mr. W. J. Guinness. In two of these specimens the 9th
and 10th joints of the antennae are more transversal and not distinctly
narrowed apically — possibly a sexual disparity only.
3207. Euplectopsis heterarthrus sp. now
Elongate, slightly convex, nitid; castaneo-rufous ; legs and terminal
joint of antennae i'ulvescent, tarsi and palpi flavescent.
Head evidently smaller than thorax, nearly straight behind the small
but prominent eyes, longer and more narrowed in front of them; the
foveae small, and situated near the eyes, its surface somewhat asperate
or punctate, nearly smooth behind, antennal tubercles small and distant.
Thorax oviform, rather longer than broad, its sides moderately rounded,
widest at the middle, without distinct punctation ; mesial groove narrow,
yet definite, and extending into the basal impression, which has a thin
groove connecting it with the large fovea at each side. Elytra not much
longer than thorax, a good deal broader behind, the shoulders curvedly
narrowed so that the base, which is incurved, is hardly wider than that
of the thorax; they are only very indistinctly punctured; the sutural
striae are broad; the dorsal impression also is broad, deep at the base,
but becoming shallow behind, and is marked off from the side of the
elytron and the sutural stria by raised lines. Hind-body about as long
as elytra, the basal two segments horizontal, 3rd slightly deflexed, the 1st
with a transverse impression at its base.
Legs moderately stout, the tibiae slightly curved outwardly, the front
and middle tarsi rather thicker than the slender posterior pair.
Antennae stout: 2nd joint suboviform, scarcely longer than broad,
rather thicker than the basal; joints 3-5 transverse, quite as broad as
2nd; 6-8 transverse, each becoming shorter than its predecessor ; 9th
lather broader than 8th, but very short; 10th distinctly enlarged, also
tianverse; 11th largest, conical. Maxillary palpi with broadly ovate
terminal articulations.
Underside chestnut-red, rather sparingly but evenly clothed with
greyish imbeseence. Prosternum medially carinate.
410 Transactions.
Male. — Abdomen elongate, 1st segment ciliate behind, only slightly
exposed, 4th rather shorter than 2nd or 3rd, 5th widely incurved at the
apex, the 6th more deeply, 7th small.
Female. — 5th segment nearly truncate at the extremity, 6th not abbre-
viated.
This small species may be identified by the antennal structure and
zealandius-like elytral striae.
Length, IJmm.; breadth, £ mm.
Erua and Raurimu, January, 1910. Three or four specimens were
also found amongst leaf-mould collected at Makatote by Mr. W. J. Guin-
ness, and at Retaruke by Captain H. S. Whitehorn, in March.
3208. Euplectopsis biimpressus sp. nov.
Elongate, nitid ; pubescence yellowish, nearly suberect on the elytra;
rufous, legs and antennae paler, tarsi and palpi Havescent.
Head smaller than thorax, straight behind the prominent eyes, punc-
tate and slightly asperate, the foveae somewhat prolonged anteriorly,
antennal tubercles rather small and distant. Thorax oviform, slightly
longer than broad, the middle widest, more gradually narrowed towards
the front than behind ; it is less distinctly punctate than the head, the
discoidal groove is distinct and extends into but not beyond the basal
fossa, which is connected with the large lateral foveae. Elytra rather
longer than thorax, curvedly narrowed towards the base, indistinctly
punctate; the sutural and interhumeral striae broad and deep at the
base, separated by slightly raised lines. Hind-body rather longer than
elytra; 3rd segment quite as long as the 2nd, and only slightly deflexed;
basal segment with a deep transverse impression in front, the 2nd
similarly but less deeply impressed, both of these impressions without
cariniform margins. Antennae stout, their 2nd joint slightly thicker
than the 1st, quite as long as it is broad; 3rd slightly larger than the
shorter 4th, neither quite as broad as the 2nd ; 5th distinctly broader
than adjoining ones; 6th and 7th transverse, broader than the shorter
8th; 9th and 10th transverse, the latter evidently larger than the 9th,
and as broad as the large, conical, terminal joint.
The lather narrower outline, enlarged 5th antennal joint, and the
additional impression on the 2nd dorsal segment will aid in its separa-
tion from E . heterarthrus.
Length, 1§ mm. ; breadth, \ mm.
Raurimu. I obtained my specimen in January, 1910, at the bottom
of a steep ravine.
3209. Pycnoplectus cephalotes Reitter. Euplecfus. Verh. d. naturf. ver.
Brunn.. vol. 18.
Rufescent, shining, very finely pubescent.
Head large, transversely quadrate, as broad as thorax, frontal foveae
subparallel, united in front, apex deeply foveolate. Thorax with the
discoidal sulcus much abbreviated in front. Elytra with the sutural
striae entire, the dorsal very short and broad, and with 2 punctiform
foveae at the base. Basal three dorsal segments almost equal, the 1st simple.
Very like Euplectus erichsoni. The head larger and more quadrate,
with shorter frontal furrows opening out into larger grooves behind.
Thorax wider, the median groove sharply impressed.
Length, 2 mm.
Grevmouth. Mr. I?. Helms.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 411
3210. Vidamus calcaratus sp. nov. Vidamus Raffray.
Robust, moderately convex, nitid; rufous; legs, antennae, and palpi
fulvescent; clothed with slender erect yellowish-grey pubescence, and also
with a few elongate erect hairs.
Head large, as broad as thorax, rounded near the base, with a pair
of large basal fossae which are prolonged as broad channels and unite
in front ; antennal tubercles prominent, confluent on the forehead. Eyes
convex, rather small. Thorax convex, widest near the front, rounded
there, gradually narrowed backwards; with a large transversal depres-
sion behind the middle, and a large elongate fovea at each side, these
are without any connecting grooves, there is no discoidal sulcus along
the middle, near the basal margin it is tripunctate. Elytra rather
broader than thorax at the base, nearly twice its length, gradually
widened posteriorly, apices truncate; sutural striae deep, intrahumeral
impression deep near the base, becoming narrow and shallow towards
the middle; each elytron quadripunetate at the base. Hind-body much
shorter than elytra, its basal three segments of about equal length, the
others deflexed.
Legs elongate; femora stout, the middle pair slightly arched above
and thicker than the others; intermediate tibae shorter and stouter than
the posterior, with a thick spiniform process near the inner extremity.
Antennae finely and sparsely pubescent; basal two joints cylindric,
the 1st rather longer and thicker than the 2nd; 3rd as long as 2nd,
more slender, gently narrowed towards its base; 4th and 5th equal,
evidently longer than broad; 6th and 7th differ but little from the pre-
ceding paii-; 8th rather smaller than adjacent ones; 9th slightly broader
and longer than its predecessor, but not as broad as the moniliform 10th;
the terminal largest, ovate; the club therefore is not distinctly tri-
articulate.
In Sharp's Euplectus convexus (254) the posterior tibiae are sub-
angulate inwardly at the middle. In my V. spinipes (3048) the legs are
less robust, and the intermediate tibiae have the spine on each placed
between the middle and extremity.
J. Length, 2A mm. ; breadth, nearly 1mm.
Makatote. A single male found in leaf-mould collected for me by
Mr. W. J. Guinness in February, 1910.
3211. Vidamus incertus Reitter. Euplectus, Verh. d. naturf. ver. Brunn..
vol. 18, p. 8.
Subdepressed, fusco-testaceous, rather shining.
Head not at all narrower than thorax, smooth, frontal furrows
narrowed, joined in front, posterior fovae deeply impressed. Thorax
as long as broad, without discoidal groove. Elytra broader and H
times longer than thorax, very finely punctulated, sutural striae entire,
the intrahumeral foveiform.
Male. — Femora moderately incrassate. Metasternum slightly foveate
behind.
Similar to Euplectus karsteni in size and form. Head smooth, with
convergent frontal furrows.
Length, 1-1" 1 mm.
Greymouth. Mr. R. Helms.
[\-2 Transactio
II s .
3212. Plectomorphus optandus sp. now Plectomorphus Raffray.
Robust, elongate, convex, shining; rufous, elytra and legs of a paler
tint, tarsi and palpi fulvescent ; pubescence yellowish, thicker on the
Aving-cases and hind-body than elsewhere, and bearing also some elon-
gate, slender, erect setae.
Head large, rather elongate, narrower than thorax, a little curvedly
narrowed behind the prominent, coarsely faceted eyes; with a pair of
basal foveae, its whole central portion depressed, so that the antennal
tubercles appear large and elevated. Thorax large, cordiform, of about
equal length and breadth, somewhat dilated and rounded near the front,
where it is more abruptly narrowed than towards the base; the median
groove is deep and broad, and terminates in the large post-median fossa,
which has thick raised hind borders, and a slight transverse stria to-
wards each side; the lateral foveae are sulciform, and extend from the
base to near the front; like the head, it is only indistinctly punctate.
Elytra a third longer than thorax, rather broader than it is at the base,
more so behind; sutural striae well marked, foveiform at the base, intra-
humeral impressions also deep at the base, rather broad, but becoming
obsolete towards the middle. Hind-body about as broad as but shorter
than the elytra, gradually deflexed, 3rd segment^, in the middle, as long
as the 2nd; the basal has a deep transverse impression with cariniform
lateral borders.
Antennae with slender, elongate pubescence; 2nd joint quite as long
but not as stout as the 1st; 3rd elongate, yet shorter than its predecessor ;
joints 4, 6, 7, and 8 moniliform, each of about equal length and breadth;
5th longer than contiguous ones; 9th and 10th evidently larger than 8th,
about equal, truncate at the base, much contracted apically; 11th largest,
conical and acuminate; the club therefore is distinctly triarticulate.
Legs elongate; anterior and intermediate femora stouter than the
posterior; front tibiae slightly bent and distinctly pubescent near the
extremity, the intermediate with a stout though rather short and not
very prominent calcar, directed backwards, at the inner extremity.
Differentiated by the rather narrow, medially concave head, and
large, elevated antennal tubercles. In the type of the genus, P. spinifer
(2476), the calcar of the middle tibiae projects inwardly.
<J. Length, 2| mm, ; breadth, f mm.
Erua. One male, taken out of leaf-mould, January, 1910. A second,
rather more slender, with simple tibiae, is no doubt the female, and was
found amongst dead leaves collected by Mr. W. J. Guinness two months
afterwards.
3213. Plectomorphus longipes sp. no v.
Elongate, slightly nitid; fusco-rufous, tarsi and palpi fulvescent;
'its clothing a mixture of rather short, depressed, and more elongate,
suberect, greyish hairs, these latter predominate on the elytra; there
are also a few slender outstanding setae.
Head nearly as large as thorax, rather abruptly narrowed in front
of the eyes, rounded behind them ; its sculpture ill-defined, apparently
minutely granular at the sides near the front ; there is a slender carina
along the middle of the occiput, the large basal foveae are not deep,
and are not distinctly prolonged anteriorly, the space between the promi-
nent antennal tubercles is depressed. Eyes small, only slightly convex.
Thorax cordiform, about as long as broad, strongly rounded, and widest
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 113
before the middle, more narrowed in front than behind; the median
groove is deep and extends into the basal fossa, which is united to the
elongate lateral impressions by transverse striae, its sculpture seems to
be finely subgranular. Elytra, at the base, broader than thorax, a third
longer, without perceptible punctation ; sutural striae deep; dorsal im-
pressions deep at the base, rather broad, but becoming indistinct before
the middle. Hind-body deflexed posteriorly, much shorter than elytra,
its first visible segment horizontal, with a transverse basal impression.
Legs very elongate, the frontal pairs particularly; femora rather
slender, anterior tibiae moderately curved externally.
Antennae elongate, with slender pubescence, basal joint cylindric,
stout, red, distinctly punctate, nearly double the length of the oblong
2nd; joints 3-8 oblong, 3-5 slightly larger than the three which follow;
9th and 10th about equal, as long as they are broad, narrowed apically,
distinctly, yet not very much, broader than the 8th; terminal elongate,
conical, acuminate, and about as long as the 9th and 10th combined.
The remarkably elongate, Byraxis-lihe legs, rather short deflexed
hind-body, suberect elytral vestiture, and the peculiar sculpture of the
head and basal joint of the antennae are sufficiently distinctive.
Length, 2|mm.; breadth, | mm.
Greymouth. A single individual from Mr. J. H. Lewis.
Byraxis Reitter. Beitrage zur Kafer-fauna von N.Z. Verh. Nat. ver.
Brunn., vol. 20.
Near subgenus Jieicheubackia. Body rather short and convex. An-
tennae 10-articulate, robust, distant at base, almost biclavate. Maxil-
lary palpi quadriarticulate, terminal joint fusiform, narrow. Basal
joint of posterior tarsi short, the following two much elongated, with
single claws. Head obsoletely bifoveolate. Thorax smooth, not at all
foveolate. Elytra without dorsal striae.
3214. Byraxis monstrosa Reitter. Verh. d. Naturf. ver. Brunn., vol. 20,
p. 197.
Rufo-castaneous, shining, smooth; extremity of antennae piceous, legs
red.
Head nearly quadrate, almost plane, with 2 shallow frontal foveae.
Thorax about as long as broad, cordiform, smooth. Elytra smooth, with-
out dorsal grooves, sutural striae very fine.
Male. — Antennae robust; basal joint stout, cylindric; 2nd quadrate,
narrower than 1st; joints 3—8 transversal, 7th and 8th appreciably
widened; 9th and 10th large, uneven, and pubescent, the former acutely
produced outwardly, the latter very thick, nearly sublimate inwardly,
so that the extremitv of the 9th joint can be received in the hollow.
Penultimate ventral segment deeply impressed, the basal strongly
foveolate medially, crested and bifasciculate laterally.
Length, 1*5 mm.
Greymouth. Mr. R. Helms.
3215. Byraxis rhyssarthra sp. nov.
Smooth, shining, nearly glabrous, there being only a few incon-
spicuous greyish hairs on the hind-body; rufous; elytra, legs, and
antennae of a paler red; tarsi and palpi flavescent.
414 Transactions.
Head nearly as large as thorax, obsoletely bifoveolate in front. Eyes
slightly prominent, with coarse facets. Thorax of about equal length
and breadth, widest just before the middle, finely margined and feebly
bisinuate at the base, without impressions. Elytra nearly thrice the
length of thorax, slightly broader at the base, their sides a little rounded
near the hind thighs, with fine sutural striae. Hind-body deflexed, with-
out well-marked sculpture. Legs slender.
Underside nitid, rufous, with some fine greyish pubescence. Meta-
sternum broadly medially depressed, the sides of the depression some-
what elevated backwards. Basal ventral segment large, flattened behind,
with a distinct tubercle close to each of the coxae; segments 2-4 very
short in the middle, the 5th with a large fovea. Anterior trochanters
spined.
Antennae 10-articulate ; basal joint stout, cylindric; 2nd similar,
but shorter; 3rd rather smaller than 2nd, and narrowed towards the
base; 4th somewhat moniliform, and shorter than adjoining ones; 5th
subquadrate; these articulations bear slender pubescence only; the 6th
and 7th coalesce and are hardly distinguishable from each other, except
that the latter has short yet distinct brassy setae and is slightly obtusely
bulging at one side; 8th extremely short, sometimes overlapped by its
predecessor, all three rather broader than the 5th; 9th very large,
straight inwardly, longer and gradually becoming broader outwardly,
its front angle slightly curved and clasping the base of the 10th, its
apex oblique and slightly concave; 10th conical when exserted, sub-
rotundate when closely applied to the penultimate, nearly as broad as it
is; both of these bear finer setae than the 7th and are finely But quite
definitely granulate.
Malformation of joints 6-8 of the antennae renders an accurate de-
scription of one male inapplicable to the other. It must be placed next
to 1645.
Female. — Antennae 11 -articulate, joints 1-5 like those of the male,
their 6th joint of about the same size as the 4th, joints 7-9 transverse,
10th broader than 9th, 11th nearly twice as long as broad.
Length, 1J mm. ; breadth, § mm.
Mount Pirongia. I found two males and three females in December,
1909.
Group SlLPHIDAE.
3216. Choleva caeca sp. hov. Cholera Latreille, Man. N.Z. Coleopt..
p. 151.
Oblong-oval, nitid, pubescence depressed, slender, pale flavescent ;
fusco-castaneous, head and legs rufescent ; tarsi, palpi, and basal three
joints of antennae testaceous, remaining joints fuscous.
Head small, widest and somewhat angulate behind the middle,
' narrowed anteriorly, moderately coarsely but not closely punctured.
Thorax large, the breadth nearly double the length, much curved an-
teriorly, base truncate but with its angles slightly overlapping the
shoulders; it is much more finely punctate than the head, indistinctly
on the middle. Scutellum triangular. Elytra nowhere broader than the
thorax, and quite twice its length, gradually narrowed posteriorly, the
apices not at all acuminate; with fine sutural striae, and moderately close,
transversely strigose sculpture.
Antennae as long as head and thorax, gradually incrassate, finely
pubescent ; 2ml joint rather longer than 3rd ; 4th and 5th longer than
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 415
broad; 6th subquadrate and a little smaller than 7th, both slightly
narrowed towards the base; 8th very short and transverse, but as broad
as the 9th, which, as well as the 10th, is transversely quadrate: I lth
conical, larger than the preceding.
Tibiae seto.se, the intermediate curvate, the posterior distinctly bi-
spinose at the extremity. Tarsi elongate, thickly pubescent, the anterior
not dilated
The eyes are not discernible above. Maxillary palpi with the pen-
ultimate articulation obconical and rather large, the terminal small and
;i culminate.
Most nearly resembles 2754: and 2756; both of these, however, can be
easily distinguished hj their prominent eyes.
$. Length, 2^- mm.; breadth, 1J mm.
Mount Ngauruhoe. My specimen I owe to the kindness of Mr. W. J.
Guinness, who collected the leaf-mould it was found in.
3217. Choleva castanea sp. nov.
Oblong-oval, slightly convex, a little nitid; light castaneous, the legs,
antennae, and palpi somewhat fulvescent ; pubescence slender, decum-
bent, yellowish-grey.
Head trigonal in front, much narrowed behind, acutely angulate late-
rally at the middle, finely and distantly punctured. Eyes invisible.
Thorax large, twice as broad as long, curvedly narrowed towards the
depressed and obtuse anterior angles, the base subtruncate but with its
angles directed backwards so as to clasp the shoulders, its sculpture fine
and rendered indefinite by the pubescence. Scutellum triangular, rather-
indistinct. Elytra of the same width as thorax at the base, gradually
narrowed posteriorly; with fine sutural striae, so sculptured as to appear
covered with transverse series of minute impressions.
Antennae with the basal three joints cylindric and about equally
elongate; 4th distinctly shorter than 3rd, and as long but narrower
than 5th; 6th and 7th subquadrate, the latter evidently the larger; 8th
short, nearly as broad as the adjoining ones; 9th and 10th transverse,
each narrowed towards its base; 11th larger, conical. Maxillary palpi
elongate, penultimate articulation long and broad, the terminal minute
and acuminate. Tibiae finely setose, the intermediate arcuate, bispinose
at the extremity. Tarsi of the male with the basal four joints of the
♦interior dilated, the middle pair slightly thicker than the posterior.
Rather less oblong than ('. caeca, and at once separable by the finer
sculpture, of the head particularly, by the more slender posterior tarsi,
and the paler and more uniform coloration.
6*. Length, 2-J mm. ; breadth, 1^ mm.
Retaruke, near Erua. A single male, picked out of leaf-mould col-
lected bv Captain H. S. Whitehorn, of the Geological Survey Department,
March, 1910.
3218. Camiarus estriatus sp. nov. Oamiarus Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt..
p. 148.
Suboblong, slightly convex, nitid, nigrescent, legs and antennae
■obscure rufous, pubescence distinct.
Head small, smooth, with a few very slender greyish hairs. Eyes
prominent. Thorax a third broader than long, widest near the middle,
well rounded and much narrowed anteriorly, slightly sinnate-angustate
4 lti Transactions.
towards the rectangular hind angles; the deep median channel, which
is expanded behind, extends almost, or quite, from base to apex; at
each side of it, on the middle, there is a well-marked puncture, and a
smaller one near the apex ; basal fossae deep and moderately elongate,
with a transverse series of 6 punctures between them; along each side
from the posterior angle to beyond the middle there are several small
punctures; it bears numerous elongate ashy hairs. Elytra oblong-oval,
with curvedly narrowed shoulders, so that the base is only a little broader
than that of the thorax, which is hardly half their length; their sculp-
ture is irregular, consisting of, on each, 6 dorsal rows of very unequal
punctures, some are elongate or oblong and others very distant from
each other, just at the base some almost form striae; they are clothed
with suberect, very elongate, slender cinereous hairs, and many con-
spicuous white ones are intermingled.
Antennae stout, finely setose; the basal six joints are subcylindric,
and differ but little, the 1st, however, is thicker, and the 6th rather
thinner than the contiguous ones; 7th rather broader than 6th; 8th
evidently the smallest; joints 9—11 about as broad as the 7th.
Male. — Tarsi anterior, with the basal three articulations dilated, the
1st largest, intermediate pair simple, 5th ventral segment incurved at the
apex .
Rather larger than G. thoracica (270), which, however, can be easily
recognized by the very regularly striate-punctate elytra and well-marked
interstices.
I possess eight specimens of the present species; two were secured by
myself, the others were found in leaf-mould sent to me by Mr. W. J.
Guinness during March and April, 1910. They are very homogeneous.
Length, 4i mm. ; breadth, nearly 2 mm.
EJrua, near Waimarino ; altitude, 2,500 ft,
3219. Silohotelus obliquus sp. nov. SUphotdus Broun, Ann. Mag. Nat,
Hist., ser. 6, vol. 15, p. 83.
Glossy, oblong-oval, slightly convex, bearing only a few minute erect
grey setae; fuscous; sides of thorax and the shoulders of a paler and
more rufescent line; the sides of elytra behind the middle fusco-
testaceous.
Head slightly broader than apex of thorax, very evidently and broadly
depressed between the vertex and the eyes, without visible sculpture.
Eyes nearly flat, occupying more than half of each side of the head,
just free from the thorax, truncate behind, narrowed anteriorly, with
moderate facets. Thorax transverse, the sides very distinctly margined,
gently ciirvedly narrowed towards the subtruncate apex ; the base closely
adapted to the elytra, feebly medially curved and sinuate towards the
sides, its angles just rectangular; its sculpture very fine and hardly
discernible. ScuteUum large, curvilinearly triangular. Elytra oblong,
just a little broader than thorax at the base, quite twice its length,
oblique towards the obtuse apices, the lateral margins much thinner than
those of the thorax; their punctation irregular, rather fine and shallow,
nowhere close, the suture sharply defined, with obsolete striae.
Antennae inserted at the sides quite clear of the eyes; basal joint
cylindric, slightly longer than 2nd, both fusco-testaceous; 3rd more
slender than 2nd, and nearly as long as it is; joints 4—7 longer than
broad, and about equal: 8th slightly broader than 7th, not abbreviated;
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 417
10th transverse, shorter and broader than 9th; terminal largest, sub-
rotund ate.
Body winged. Pygidium covered. Tarsi seemingly only 4-jointed,
but I think they are pentainerous, with the true basal articulation small
and indistinctly marked off; the basal three joints of the front pairs
are slightly dilated.
The large scutellum and oblique posterior portion of the elytra dis-
tinguish it from 2757, the typical species.
Length, 1| mm. ; breadth, 1 mm.
Greymouth. A single individual, from Mr. ,T. H. Lewis, October.
1909.
Group COLYDIIDAE.
3220. Syncalus explanatus sp. nov. Syncalus Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 200.
Convex, oblong-oval, subopaque; fusco-piceous, the front and sides
of thorax, as well as the legs, obscurely rufescent; tarsi and antennae
of a paler red; the setae yellowish, rather fine, erect along the sides, on
the after part of the body, and on the tibiae; on the elytra, near the
suture, they are depressed and fine, but beyond are irregularly concen-
trated, without, however, forming distinct tufts.
Head with subgranular sculpture, resembling short rugae behind.
Thorax nearly twice as broad as long, disc transversely convex, the sides
explanate or flattened, slightly rounded and more narrowed in front
than behind; the anterior angles extend as far as the front of the eyes,
the posterior are nearly rectangular ; disc a little uneven, with irregular
sculpture consisting of an admixture of small flattened granules and
short rugae. Elytra of the same width as thorax at the base, twice
its length; their sculpture somewhat ill-defined; when examined from
behind it seems to consist of series of moderately coarse punctures, which,
when scrutinized sideways, appear as if they were transformed into
granules, a peculiarity which is also apparent in some species of Coxelus.
Antennae sparsely pubescent, the exposed part of the 1st joint not
longer than the 2nd, 3rd twice as long as broad, 4th slightly longer
than 5th, 8th small and transverse. Club oblong, abruptly enlarged,
unsymmetrical, being attached to the 8th joint outside the middle, its
basal joint almost as broad as the intermediate, the terminal large and
rotund ate.
It may be distinguished from the other recorded species by the
flattened sides of the thorax and peculiar sculpture. The setae on the
tibiae are rather fine.
Length, 6 mm. ; breadth, 3^ mm.
Akatarawa, near Wellington. My specimen was found by Mr. A.
O'Connor.
3221. Tarphiomimus tuberculatus sp. nov. Tarphiomimus Wollaston.
Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 182.
Elongate, very uneven, opaque; fuscous; antennae and tarsi piceo-
rufous; sparingly clothed with inconspicuous, elongate, yellowish-grey
squamae.
Head granulate, antennary orbits only moderately developed. Thorax
in its widest part, near the front, about a half broader than long, very
much narrowed towards the base; its sides bilobed, the anterior lobe
14— Trans.
418 . Transactions.
large, with a deep semicircular excision between it and the dentiform
second one, which is situated near the middle, the prominent posterior
angle can hardly be termed a lobe; disc much elevated, with a broad
channel from front to rear, a pair of strongly elevated prominences
form the lateral boundary of the channel in front, there is a pair of
smaller ones behind, and another, less elevated but more elongate, near
the middle of the base; the sculpture is granular. Elytra more than
double the length of thorax, their sides nearly vertical, with serrate
margins; on each elytron there is an elongate tubercle at the base, not
far from the suture, a pair behind the basal one but nearer the side,
on top of the declivity (posterior), near the suture, a rounded pro-
minence, and a pair of smaller ones lower down; there are some others
on the side, and a minute one behind the middle, near the suture; the
disc is almost flat along the middle, with nearly seriate granular sculpture.
Antennae with tine setae, those, however, on the thick basal joint are
coarser and brassy; 2nd stout, oviform; 3rd elongate, but not quite as
long as the 4th and 5th combined. Legs with curled squamiform setae;
tibiae flexuous.
Underside opaque, reddish; the metasternum, basal ventral segment,
and middle of prosternum with distinct granules and very few yellow
setae, the other segments more finely sculptured, flanks of the prosternum
covered with sappy matter.
An obscurely coloured elongate species, with stouter legs than T.
indentatus, and with altogether different sculpture, the elytral pro-
minences being distinctly separated from one another.
Length, 4J mm. ; breadth, 1§ mm.
Mount Greenland, near Ross. From Mr. H. Hamilton's collection.
3222. Ulonotus uropterus sp. nov. Ulonotus Erichson, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 186.
Elongate, transversely convex, subopaque; fusco-piceous, thoracic
lobes and legs pale fusco-rufous; the sides of the body bear short dark
setae, the elevated parts slender yellow ones, the legs coarse greyish ones.
Head subquadrate, with close granular sculpture. Eyes free, pro-
minent. Antennae sparsely pubescent, the club more densely; 2nd joint
nearly as long as the exposed part of the 1st, not quite as stout; 3rd
distinctly longer than 4th or 5th; joints 6-8 shorter, and moniliform;
club oblong-oval, its intermediate joint larger than 9th, but shorter
than the 11th. Thorax bilobed, the frontal lobe large, its apex attain-
ing the eye, the 2nd is quite dentiform and placed at the middle of the
side, posterior angles rectangular; its middle portion — id est, without
the lobes — is longer than broad, binodose in front and projecting some-
what over the head, it is without other inequalities and is distinctly
granulate. Scutellum small. Elytra with slightly rounded shoulders,
yet quite as broad as thorax at the base, quite twice its length, with
thick distinctly prolonged apices, the lateral margins only indistinctly
serrate; they are closely seriate-granulate; 3rd interstices a little ele-
vated at the base; just at the summit of the posterior declivity on each
elytron there is a pair of prominent nodosities; in line with the outer,
but a little further in advance of it, there is a less-prominent one.
The tail-like prolongation of the elytral apices will at once lead to
its recognition.
Length, 3^ mm. ; breadth, 1^ mm.
Wairiri, Kaikoura. Unique. Found under bark by Mr. W. L. Wallace.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 419
3223. Ulonotus wallacei sp. nov.
Oblong, elongate, transversely convex, opaque; fuscous, variegated
with yellowish-grey, obscure rufous, and black; the thoracic lobes, legs,
and antennae fusco-rufous, the middle of the tibiae often fuscous.
Head narrowed anteriorly, with rather coarse brassy setae and
granular sculpture, the antennal prominences distinct. Thorax a third
broader than long, its frontal lobe largest and extending to beyond the
eye; the 2nd, just behind the middle, is much smaller, deeply and
rather widely separated from the 1st; 3rd barely half the size of 2nd,
and nearly forming the basal angle; disc uneven, with a large angular-
depression on the middle, a much smaller one at the base, the other, at
the apex, is not always distinctly angulate ; the setae are very irregularly
distributed, greyish-yellow, some are squamiform, others finer. Elytra
oblong, parallel, and as broad as the widest part of thorax; the series
of nodules nearest each side of the suture form almost continuous ridges;
their basal part is most elevated, so that the scutellar region seems de-
pressed ; the suture is much more finely nodose, and the series nearest
the sides are more or less rufescent ; the setae are greyish, some are
coarser than others, and those on the sides, like those of the legs, are
more or less erect.
Antennae with rather dark slender setae; 2nd joint thick and usually
as long as the exposed portion of the 1st, these often bear coarse yellowish
setae; 3rd slender, and evidently longer than the contiguous ones; joints
4-8 decrease in length; club large, dark, its basal joint about as broad
as the other two. Basal three joints of the tarsi, together, rather shorter
than the terminal one.
Underside nigrescent, opaque, with numerous distinct pale brassy
setae; it is closely granulate; the 5th ventral segment, however, is much
less so; metasternum, behind, grooved half-way along the middle.
Its nearest ally is 1708 (U . rufescens), which may be distinguished by
the very short transverse basal joints of the club, less-convex eyes, and
different coloration.
Length, 5— 5| mm. ; breadth, 2-2J mm.
Wairiri, Seaward Kaikouras. Several specimens found under bark
by Mr. W. L. Wallace, whose name has been given to the species.
3224. Notoulus demissus sp. nov. Notoulus Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 183 (Ablabus).
Oblong, convex, subopaque; obscure fusco-rufous, the depressed
scutellar region and a large median spot across each elytron dark fuscous ;
legs ferruginous, antennae and tarsi somewhat fulvescent, thoracic lobes
testaceous; sparingly clothed with short, slender, more or less curled
flavescent setae.
Head large, nearly as broad as the thoracic disc, with indistinct
granular sculpture. Thorax about as broad as long, excluding the
lateral lobes; uneven, with a large median impression which seems to
extend to the sides, distinctly and irregularly granulate; its sides
broadly explanate and bilobed ; the frontal lobe is large, with its anterior
angle projecting almost as far as, yet distant from, the centre of the
eye, the 2nd is cylindrical and situated between the former and the
base, posterior angles indistinct. Elytra twice the length of the thorax,
with obtuse shoulders, so that, at the base, they are no wider than the
thorax; their sides are studded with granules, and appear subserrate;
420 Transaction*.
they are seriate-punctate, regularly near the suture, not so beyond; the
scutellar region is depressed; there is a distinct, though not large, basal
elevation of the 3rd interstices, and on the summit of the apical declivity
on each elytron there is a pair of small nodosities.
Antennae with the club densely pubescent, broad and Particulate;
basal joint but little exposed above; 2nd thick, as long as broad; 3rd
slender, not elongate, yet longer than it is broad; 4th and 5th slightly
longer than broad; joints 6-8 moniliform and small; 9th rather broader
than its predecessor, not dull and pubescent, and only about a third of
the width of the club.
Only a single species, N . brevis (1353), resembles this, which, how-
ever, is even smaller, with more-convex elytra, rounded shoulders, and
different thoracic impressions and lobes.
Length, nearly 2 mm. ; breadth, 1 mm.
Mount Pirongia. December, 1909. Unique.
In its natural condition it is covered with greyish sappy matter, so
that its real sculpture and thoracic lobes cannot be seen. The removal
of that substance by degrees with the point of a needle and brushing
with benzene is a very delicate and tedious operation in the case of a
somewhat asperate insect about the size of a pin's head. At any rate,
the cleaning without damage and the subsequent description of this
solitary specimen occupied a whole day.
Dr. Sharp's Bitoma sellata (1927) should be placed in this genus.
It is not in the least like the European Bitoma, and may be readily
separated from Ulojiotus by its biarticulate club.
3225. Bitoma maura sp. nov. Bitoma Herbst, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 192.
Elongate, subdepressed, entirely dull black, with a few elongate, scale-
like, yellowish setae.
Head rather smaller than thorax, with granular sculpture. Eyes of
moderate size. Antennae inserted below the edge of the forehead; the
exposed portion of the basal joint not longer than the thick 2nd, which
is narrowed towards its base; 3rd slender, longer than adjoining ones;
4th and 5th about equal, longer than broad; 8th and 9th moniliform;
the 10th obconical, twice as broad as the 9th, about as long as broad;
11th oblong, as broad as the 10th; these two joints are densely and finely
pubescent, and form the club. Thorax not lobate, widest near the front,
gradually narrowed backwards, with obtuse angles; the surface a little
uneven, with a large depression on the middle of the disc; its sculpture
is ill-defined, but appears to be granular; it is slightly broader than
long. Elytra almost thrice the length of thorax, evidently broader, their
sides parallel; they are broadly impressed before the middle and behind
the scutellum, their sculpture seems to consist of closely placed series of
granules.
So far as superficial appearance is concerned, this species stands alone.
The club is unusually elongate.
Our B. insidaris and B. vicina (343 and 344), so far as can be judged
without dissection, will probably remain in this genus. All the other
species are certainly different from the type of the genus, the European
B. crenata.
Length, 2k mm. ; breadth, nearly 1 mm.
Waimarino; elevation, 2,600 ft.; January, 1910. One only could
be found.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 421
Group Pycnomeridae.
3226. Pycnomerus reversus sp. nov. Pycnomerus Erichson, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 208.
Glabrous, slightly nitid, nigrescent, legs and antennae rufous.
Head subquadrate, evidently narrower than thorax, moderately finely
and rather distantly punctate, very deeply bi-impressed throughout.
Thorax longer than broad, its sides nearly straight, just perceptibly or
hardly at all narrowed anteriorly; the apex with a slight median emargin-
ation, its angles not prominent; base somewhat curved, so that the
angles are not sharply rectangular ; it is distinctly but not coarsely and
rather distantly punctured, moderately bi-impressed along the middle,
and with the interval between the impressions rather broad and nearly
smooth. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra double the length of the thorax,
somewhat oviform, widest near the middle; the base slightly incurved,
with incrassate angles, which therefore appear to project slightly out-
wardly as well as frontally ; the dorsal sculpture on each elytron con-
sists of 4 series of unequal, mostly elongate, punctiform impressions;
these are connected by feeble striae, but towards the apex the stria are
deep, the sutural particularly so, and also rather broad, so that the
adjoining interstice appears costiform ; the suture is broad and slightly
expanded outwardly at the base, the 2nd and 4th interstices do not
reach the base ; the sculpture near the sides is finer and more punctate-
striate; all the interstices and the suture have distant, minute, serial
punctures.
Underside nitid, the sternum coarsely, the abdomen more finely and
remotely punctured, its terminal segment with a large fovea at each side.
Belongs to section I in my cabinet, which comprises species with
minute eyes and indistinct 11th antennal joints. Most nearly related to
1944, 1949, and 1950, but, independently of other details, differentiated
by the finer punctation of the thorax and unusual elytral sculpture.
Length, 3^-3^ mm. ; breadth, 1-lj mm.
Greymouth. Three examples from Mr. J. H. Lewis.
3227. Pycnomerus candidus sp. nov.
Nitid, castaneo-rufous, antennae rufous, apex of thorax fringed with
fine yellowish pubescence.
Head subquadrate, narrower than thorax, frontal fovae deep ; its
punctation distinct but not close. Thorax of about equal length and
breadth, very slightly narrowed in front, very gradually so behind, with
well-developed lateral margins; apex medially truncate, but with a short
sinuosity near each side, thus permitting the small eyes to be easily seen,
its angles acutely prominent; posterior angles rectangular, but not ex-
tending to the base itself, close to each there is a deep transverse fossa
which has a thick hind margin ; it is moderately coarsely and rather
distantly punctured; the dorsal impressions are well marked and elon-
gate, and are separated by a nearly smooth space which is broader behind
than in front, but not cariniform there. Scutellum small. Elytra ovi-
form, twice the length of thorax, widest near the hind thighs, a good deal
contracted posteriorly; at the base they are singly rounded, yet only
gently, towards the suture, the humeral angles project forwards; they are
deeply striate, with rather distant and not very definite punctures; the
interstices have remote, minute serial punctures; on each elytron the
422 Transactions.
suture and adjoining interstice, as well as the cariniforin 4th and 6th,
do not quite reach the basal margin. Antennae with the 11th joint
indistinct.
Underside rufescent, shining, with rather coarse punctures, each with
a minute seta ; 5th ventral segment slightly concave, and almost as
coarsely punctate as the others.
A careful scrutiny of the base of the elytra will be an aid in dis-
crimination. The anterior angles of the thorax are more acute than
those of 1949, the lateral margins are thicker throughout, and the dis-
coidal impressions are not at all sharply bordered.
Length, 3h mm. ; breadth, 14; mm.
Greymouth. Unique. Found by Mr. J. H. Lewis.
Obs. — From the same source specimens were received of Sharp's
P. longulus. If I am right as regards identification, the following notes
will be useful to other students : Presternum opaque and closely punc-
tate; metasternum glossy, more coarsely but rather distantly punctured,
medially sulcate behind; terminal ventral segment depressed or slightly
concave, its frontal margin incurved, thus leaving a transverse depres-
sion at the apex of the penultimate. Size, nearly 4 mm. by li mm.
Group BOTHRIDERIDAE.
3228. Bothrideres diversus sp. nov. Botkrideres Eriehson. Man. N.Z.
Coleopt,, p. 207.
Elongate, almost glabrous, slightly nitid ; black, legs and antennae
rufescent.
Head moderately finely, yet distinctly, but not very closely punctate.
Eyes very prominent. Thorax of about equal length and breadth, apex
subtruncate, its sides nearly straight from the rectangular anterior angles
to beyond the middle, slightly narrowed behind, basal angles rectangular ;
it is more coarsely punctured than the head, more closely near the sides
than on the middle, much more finely in front; there is a slight elongate
central fovea with smooth lateral borders. Scutellum sparsely punctate.
Elytra with rounded shoulders, broader than thorax at the base, thrice
its length, their sides gently rounded; on each elytron there are 6 dorsal
finely and rather distantly punctured but not always well-defined striae ;
the suture, as well as the 3rd and 5th interstices, are cariniform behind ;
the suture is finely punctate, as are also the plane intervals between the
adjacent striae.
Antennae with slender pubescence, basal 2 joints normal, both thick;
3rd evidently longer than broad; joints 4-8 about equal, as long as they
are broad; 9th rather longer than its predecessor; 10th quite as long
as broad, narrowed towards its base, at its apex not double the width of
the 9th; 11th rotundate, rather narrower than the 10th.
The club is usually composed of the abruptly enlarged transversal
10th and 11th joints, whereas in this species the 10th is subtriangular
and, at its base, no broader than the extremity of the 9th, and the 11th,
though rounded, is as long as broad.
The insect is rather more slender than previously recorded species,
and has more convex and prominent eyes. The few ash-coloured slender
setae are hardly perceptible.
Length, 3h mm. ; breadth, 1 £ mm.
Wairiri, Kaikoura. One individual, along with a specimen of B.
moestus (367).
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 423
Group Cryptophagidae.
3229. Cryptophagus amoenus sp. nov. Cryptophagus Herbst, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 224.
Minute, elongate - oblong, moderately transversely convex, nitid;
castaneo-rufous, legs and terminal joint of antennae fulvescent, remainder
of these latter rufous; sparingly clothed with suberect pale flavescent
setae.
Head evidently narrower than thorax, not trigonal, the forehead sub-
truncate, it is smooth on the middle, moderately coarsely, proportion-
ally, punctured at the sides, and with a series of coarse punctures across
the occiput. Eyes convex, with distinct facets. Antennae inserted in
front of and just below the margin of the forehead, 11-articulate ; basal
joint stout; 3rd rather longer than 2nd; 4th and 5th as long as broad
and about equal, rather shorter than their predecessor ; joints 6-8 rather
smaller and moniliform; 9th rather narrower than 10th, but larger than
8th; 10th transverse; 11th conical. Thorax subquadrate, slightly and
very gradually narrowed towards the obtuse front angles, its sides mar-
ginate but nowhere denticulate; base slightly bisinuate, with nearly
rectangular angles, its length and breadth about equal; the surface,
relatively, moderately coarsely punctate. Scutellum transverse, smooth.
Elytra as broad as thorax at the base, almost twice its length, slightly
narrowed posteriorly; with fine sutural striae, their punctation a little
finer and more distant than that of the thorax, and becoming finer and
less distinct behind.
Tibiae somewhat dilated towards the extremity, unarmed. Tarsi
quadriarticulate, the basal three joints of about equal length, each of
these furnished with a slender elongate seta, the terminal rather longer
than the others taken together, with distinct claws.
A single specimen only of this minute insect has been secured. It is
not a true Cryptophagus, neither does it agree with any of our Cucujidae,
to which group nevertheless it will no doubt be transferred as the type
of a distinct genus if other specimens can be obtained.
Length, 1 \ mm. ; breadth, \ mm.
Makatote. Found amongst leaf-mould collected for me in February,
1910, by Mr. W. J. Guinness.
Group Lathridiidae.
3230. Corticaria fuscicollis sp. nov. Corticaria Marsham, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 234.
Variegate, head and thorax piceo-fuscous, elytra rufo-castaneous, more
flavescent near the shoulders and apex, legs and antennae infuscate, the
knees and basal joints of the tarsi paler; pubescence yellowish, scanty,
and suberect, most conspicuous near the shoulders and on the posterior
declivity; slightly nitid.
Head nearly as broad as the widest part of thorax, moderately coarsely
but not closely punctate. Eyes prominent, occupying almost the whole
side of the head from the point of antennal insertion. Antennae as long
as head and thorax, with a few fine dark setae; basal joint subpyriform ;
2nd not as stout, oviform; joints 3-8 slender, all longer than broad;
club loosely articulated, the terminal joint largest, ovate. Thorax a little
broader than long, rather wider near the front than elsewhere, its sides
moderately rounded; there is a shallow impression near the front and
424 Transactions.
another near the base, close to the basal margin there is a transverse
linear depression, its punctation is irregular and rather coarse. Scutel-
lum small. Elytra oblong, much broader than thorax, the shoulders
rounded but not at all elevated, sutural striae distinct, their relatively
coarse punctures are nearly quite seriate, but become finer behind.
Legs pubescent; anterior tibiae slightly bent near the extremity;
tarsi slender, terminal joint quite as long as the basal two united.
Our nearest species, C. terricola (2784), has a rather shorter, sub-
ovate hind-body, with distinctly raised shoulders.
Length, 1J mm. ; breadth, § mm.
Erua. January, 1910. One, found amongst dead leaves.
Group Byrhhidae.
3231. Pedilophorus opaculus sp. nov. Pedilophorus Steflahny, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt.. p. 244 = Morychus.
Oval, moderately convex, glabrous, subopaque, head and thorax
slightly shining; nigrescent, the legs and basal joints of antennae piceo-
rufous, the terminal six joints infuscate.
Head distinctly and moderately closely punctured, the labrum rather
more coarsely. Thorax more than twice as broad as it is long, the sides
gradually narrowed anteriorly, with their margins slightly thickened
near the base, the apex finely margined behind the eyes, posterior angles
rather more acute than the anterior; its punctation is just a little finer
than that of the head. Scutellum triangular. Elytra of the same width
as thorax at the base, somewhat broader near the middle, a good deal
narrowed behind, their margins very distinct at the shoulders; along the
middle of the disc the punctures are evidently finer than those on the
thorax, they become even finer towards the sides, and on the hind slope
the sculpture is finely coriaceous; on each elytron, near the suture, 3
irregular series of coarser punctures extend to beyond the middle, and
between these and the side 4 or 5 irregular indefinite striae may be seen;
none of these reach the base, which is more finely sculptured than the
dorsum.
Antennae elongate, joints 6-11 broader than the preceding four and
distinctly pubescent, the 4th joint as long as the 5th. Tibiae very
scantily and finely setose, the anterior grooved along their outer face,
the intermediate less strongly curved externally than those of P. lewisi
(2794), and tapering more towards the extremity. The membranous
appendage of the 3rd tarsal joint is prolonged under the 4th.
Underside slightly nitid, black, with very scanty, fine, ashy pubescence.
Metasternum moderately coarsely punctured; the prosternal process
rather broad, and, like the mesosternum, finely punctate. Trochanteral
portion of the posterior coxal laminae rather longer than in 2794.
Abdomen finely punctured, the 5th segment slightly convex and nearly
smooth in the middle, with a feeble transverse impression behind.
The dull elytra, with only very faintly viridescent sides, and cessa-
tion of perceptible punctures towards the posterior portion, will enable
entomologists to separate this species from 2794, which is altogether
more glossy and aeneous, rather smaller, with the 4th antenna! joint
shorter than those next to it. The underside also differs, the 5th ventral
segment being shorter, with distinct yellow hairs and an apical fovea.
In Pascoe's description of Liorhoria huttoni there is no allusion to serial
Broun. — New Genera end Species of Coleoptera. 425
punctures or striae on the elytra; it must therefore be distinct from
this species and P. lewisi.
Length, 8-9 mm. ; breadth, 5 mm.
Bold Peak, Wakatipu. Another of Mr. H. Hamilton's discoveries.
Group Copridae.
.'52:32. Saphobius lepidus sp. nov. Saphobius Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.>
p. 255.
Subquadrate, moderately nitid, bearing short, rather fine, flavescent
setae, which on the elytra! interstices are disposed in almost regular
duplicate series; nigrescent or rufo-piceous, legs dark rufous, antennae
and palpi rufo-testaceous.
Head narrowed towards the front, bidentate there, rather coarsely
and closely punctured. Thorax twice as broad as long in the middle,
widely emarginate and with acute angles in front, the sides nearly
straight for two-thirds of their length, then obliquely narrowed an-
teriorly, the base slightly rounded, its angles, nevertheless, nearly rect-
angular; with shallow oviform impressions rather than punctures, these
are not very close, and each has a short seta proceeding from it, there
is only a slight longitudinal depression behind. Elytra of exactly the
same width as the thorax at the base, broadly rounded posteriorly, and
covering the pygidium; on each there are 6 lines, which can hardly be
termed striae.
Tibiae finely setose, the anterior curvate, gradually dilated, obliquely
truncate at the extremity and with acutely prominent external angles,
there are 2 more denticles on the outer edge. Intermediate and hind
tarsi well developed, the anterior slender and abbreviated, so that during
repose they do not extend outwards as far as the external angle of the tibae.
Antennae inserted below the sides of the head; their elongate basal
joint, which is as long as the following five combined, is therefore partly
concealed from above; 2nd conical, stouter than the 1st; 3rd and 4th
small; 5th and 6th somewhat transversal; club moderate, pubescent,
triarticulate.
Underside shining, piceous, with minute setae, the sternum coarsely
punctate, abdomen finely, metasternum nearly smooth on the middle.
In other species the eyes, though not at all prominent, are quite dis-
cernible above; they extend downwards, and are situated at the back
part of the head just inside the thoracic angles, but in this species they
are almost invisible above, though well developed underneath; these
organs, therefore, and the neatly arranged setae on the elytra, will enable
this species to be identified.
Length, head exserted, 4 mm.; breadth, 2 J mm.
Erua, near Waimarino. Found amongst decaying leaves on the
ground (elevation, 2,500 ft.), January, 1910; and sent during March
by Captain H. S. Whitehorn, of the Geological Survey Department,
amongst vegetable matter collected at the head of the Retaruke River,
about five miles from Erua.
Group Melolonthidae.
3233. Odontria nitidula sp. nov. Odontria White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 265.
Convex, subovate, shining; testaceous; the vertex, middle of thorax,
and tibial teeth more or less infuscate; forehead rufo-castaneous, spar-
426 Transactions.
ingly clothed with decumbent, pale yellow, and outstanding elongate
hairs, these latter chiefly confined to the sides.
Head coarsely punctured, the forehead rather less so, with dark re-
flexed margins, Avhich are obtusely rounded in front. Thorax only half
as long as broad, apex widely emarginate; base distinctly margined,
rather deeply bisinuate, so as to appear somewhat lobate, or obtusely
prominent, in the middle, its angles obtuse, the sides gently curvedly
narrowed towards the front; it is very distinctly punctate, but not as
coarsely as the head, and is slightly impressed along the middle. Elytra
nearly thrice the length of thorax, of the same width as it is at the base,
much broader behind, apices subtruncate; the sutural striae moderately
impressed, the others more or less indefinite, quite obsolete near the base,
their punctation irregular, similar to that of the thorax.
Antennae short; 2nd joint nearly as stout as the 1st, but shorter;
3rd and 4th of about equal length; 5th very short, simple; club tri-
articulate. Anterior tibiae tridendate.
The somewhat glossy surface, pale colour, very distinct thoracic punc-
tation, and the rather lobate base distinguish this from all the other species
except White's Rhizotrogus zealandicus (474). In one example the elytra
are slightly infuscate.
$. Length, 12-14 mm.; breadth, 7-8 mm.
Titahi Bay, Wellington. One from Mr. A. O'Connor.
3234. Odontria monticola sp. nov.
Oblong, a little dilated posteriorly, opaque; light yellowish-brown,
and, excepting the head, almost immaculate; the decumbent pubescence
rather slender, pale greyish-yellow, the erect setae much more elongate
and more scanty; head fusco-testaceous, the middle irregularly dark
fuscous, as are also the outer edges of the anterior tibiae and all the tarsi.
Head very sparingly and coarsely punctured, the reflexed margins
of the clypeus gradually narrowed anteriorly and subtruncate at apex.
Thorax with the breadth double the length, incurved in front, bisinuate
at the base, posterior angles obtusely rectangular, its surface finely and
rather distantly punctured. Elytra thrice the length of thorax, with
slender striae, which are moderately definite behind but less so near the
base; the seriate punctures are blackish, distinct, regular, and small,
and are separated by intervals of about the same size as themselves;
interstices plane, finely but not closely punctate; apices subtruncate;
pygidium short, fuscous.
Male. — -Antennae short, their 1st joint stout, 2nd shorter, both dilated
towards the extremity; 3rd elongate; the 4th nearly as much elongated
as the 5th, which is just as long as the other leaflets; the club, conse-
quently, is 5-articulate.
Female. — Antennae short, their 5th joint very short and hardly at
all produced; the club is therefore composed of three leaflets. Thorax
more sparingly pubescent, so that the fine, though not close, punctation
can be easily seen. Elytra with less nigrescent, less regular, but slightly
coarser punctures, and therefore with less discernible linear sculpture
than in the male, and with a few light-fuscous spots on some of the
interstices.
The stature is about the same as that of 0. striata, but in it the dark
lines and serial punctures on the elytra are distinct in both sexes, and
the interstices have numerous large obvious dark spots
Length, 16 mm.; breadth, 9 mm.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 427
Bold Peak, Wakatipu. A pair, mounted on cardboard, forwarded
for inspection by Mr. A. O'Connor, of Wellington. The male was cap-
tured by Mr. Howie, the female by Mr. H. Hamilton.
3235. Odontria similis sp. nov.
Oblong, elongate, slightly convex, opaque; thinly covered with de-
pressed, yellowish-grey, moderately short and slender hairs, and with
coarser, elongate, and somewhat rufescent ones along the sides and on
the head; the base of thorax also with elongate but much paler ones;
legs fusco-testaceous.
Head coarsely and very irregularly punctured, the back part and a
large spot near each eye almost smooth, its rims reflexed and very slightly
curved in front. Thorax of the usual form, twice as broad as long,
moderately finely and not closely punctate. Scutellum sparingly punc-
tured. Elytra slightly widened behind, apices very slightly rounded;
they are of the same width at the base as the thorax, but fully thrice its
length; the sutural striae are distinct and finely punctate, the others
are shallow and indefinite, the interstital punctation is fine. Pygidium
broadly obconical, medially angulate at the extremity, with shallow rugose
sculpture.
Similar in form to O. marmorata, the thorax and hind-body light
brown, but both very irregularly and numerously maculate with dark
fuscous, so that the insect appears much darker ; the pygidium is pitchy
brown instead of being somewhat testaceous ; the head is dark shining
brown, with a testaceous streak across it near the back. The breast is
testaceous, finely and rather distantly punctate and pubescent ; the
abdomen is fuscous and more closely punctured. The labrum is more
vertical and less prominent. The 5th antennal joint, though short, is
rather more produced; the club is triarticulate. 0. fusca (2518) has
striate elytra.
Length, 14 mm. ; breadth, 8 mm.
Mount Greenland, near Ross; elevation, 2,500ft. Found by Mr.
Hamilton.
3236. Costleya simmondsi sp. nov. Costleya Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 1115.
Broadly oval, moderately convex, nitid; nearly glabrous, having only
a few slender setae on the head and along the sides, the pygidium and
tibiae with coarser ones; the clypeus, elytra, and sides of thorax fusco-
testaceous tinged with green ; the back of the head and middle of thorax
light fuscous; tibiae oiceous, more or less viridescent, the outer edge of
the anterior reddish ; antennae pale castaneous, club opaque and nearly black.
Head irregularly, coarsely, but not closely punctured ; clypeus with
somewhat reflexed margins, slightlv medially incurved in front. Thorax
nearly twice as broad as it is long, its sides finely rimmed, more
narrowed in front than behind, its base strongly bisinuate, the apex
deeply emarginate, front angles projecting beyond the middle of the
eyes; its punctation coarse, not very close, but irregular; there is a
median impression near the front. Elytra of the same width as thorax
at the base, rather wider behind the middle, apices obtusely rounded
towards the suture; with rather broad, closely punctured striae; inter-
stices smooth, the 3rd, 5th, and 7th broader and more elevated than the
others, their sculpture, however, becomes indistinct near the apices; the
lateral margins are somewhat explanate almost to the extremity.
428 Transactions.
Antennae 8-articulate, basal joint largest, dilated towards the ex-
tremity, 2nd rather longer than 3rd and twice as stout, 4th longer than
the preceding, gradually thickened, 5th very short but not broader than
the 4th j club composed of 3 rather short equal leaflets.
Differs from 1977 (C. discoided) in coloration, by the coarse sculpture
of the head and thorax, deep elytra! striae and more costiform inter-
stices, obviously tridentate anterior tibiae, and by the more elongated
tarsal joints.
Length, 14 mm.; breadth, 8 mm.
Mount Alpha, near Wellington; elevation, about 4,500 ft. Described
from a specimen mounted on cardboard and sent for examination by Mr.
Hubert Simmonds, of Wellington, in whose honour it has been named.
Group EUCNEMIDAE.
3237. Talerax dorsalis sp. now Talerax Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 279.
Subparallel, moderately narrow, nitid; black; legs fuscous; the knees,
tarsi, and apical margin of thorax castaneous; pubescence cinereous,
slender, and elongate, slightly flavescent and thicker at the base of the
thorax.
Head almost as broad as the front of the thorax, feebly medially im-
pressed, distinctly but not very closely punctate. Eyes large and pro-
minent. Thorax a third broader than long, apical margin somewhat
rej&exed and broadly rounded, posterior angles robust, rathei long, a
little curved, not at all divergent; disc convex, distinctly yet rather
finely but nowhere closely punctured. Scutellum minutely sculptured.
Elytra as broad as thorax at the base, thrice its length, tapering very
gently towards the extremity ; the shoulders and each side of the suture,
at the base, obtusely elevated, sutural striae indefinite but terminating
near the apices in deep foveiform depressions, their punctation is coarser
than that of the thorax and appears slightly rugose in some aspects, there
are also some obsolete striae near the middle.
Legs very finely pubescent; tarsi slender, simple, basal joint nearly
as long as all the following ones, their penultimate joint with slender
lobes. Antennae distinctly but not widely separated at the base; 1st
joint stout and somewhat curved; 2nd very short and feebly rufescent ;
3rd elongate, as long as the 1st; joints 4—10 subserrate, all longer than
broad, the 4th, however, is shorter than adjoining ones; 11th elongate;
they bear distinct infuscate pubescence.
T . mi cans (2366) comes nearest, but is rather larger, its thorax is
more glossy and irregularly punctured, so that the middle and other
spots are almost smooth, the elytral sculpture is more definite, the basal
elevations less so.
Length, 3§ mm. ; breadth, 1^ mm.
Mount Pirongia. One captured by myself in December, 190!).
Group Elateridae.
3238. Protelater diversus sp. nov. Protelater Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 304.
Narrow, elongate, and shining, pitchy black, elytral base somewhat
rufescent, the knees and claws pale castaneous; pubescence scanty, slender
but distinct, greyish-yellow.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 429
Head rather large, finely and irregularly punctate, with a pair of
nearly smooth spots on the vertex. Eyes prominent. Antennae filiform,
densely and finely pubescent, their 9th joint reaching backwards to the
shoulder; 3rd joint slightly shorter than 2nd, these, together, about as
long as the 4th. Thorax elongate, its length more than doubt the breadth
at the middle, with rather thick and very divergent posterior angles, the
anterior rectangular and with a pale transverse spot near each; its whole
surface very distinctly and moderately closely punctured. Elytra elon-
gate, tapering gradually towards the rounded apex; they are rather
closely and coarsely punctate-striate, but less distinctly punctate near
the base; interstices finely punctured, the 3rd and 5th more elevated
behind than the others.
Underside nigrescent, moderately punctate, with greyish pubescence.
The species most resembling this, 1369 (P. nigricans) and 1990 (P.
urquJiarti), may be readily separated, the former by the less divergent
and rufescent thoracic angles and shorter, stouter antennae; the latter
by the very fine thoracic sculpture, and by the striae being nearly obsolete
on the basal half of the elytra.
3. Length, 10 mm.; greatest breadth, 2^ mm.
Mount Quoin. Found on dead trunks of Fagus, at an elevation of
about 3,800 ft., by Mr. H. Simmonds, from whom a specimen has been
received.
3239. Chrosis dubitans sp. nov. Chrosis Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 296.
Robust, not parallel; pubescence distinct, pale brassy; nitid, rufo-
piceous, antennae nigrescent.
Head moderately coarsely and irregularly punctured, with a nearly
smooth space near each eye. Antennae finely pubescent, hardly attaining
the base of thorax, 3rd joint rather longer than 2nd. Thorax of about
equal length and breadth, gradually narrowed anteriorly, with carinate,
robust, and slightly divergent basal angles; the sides, before the middle,
are broadly yet slightly impressed, there is an elongate median impres-
sion near the base, and near the front an indistinctly elevated line, the
disc is finely and rather distinctly punctured, but the sculpture becomes
closer and more distinct near the sides and apex. Elytra rather deeply
striate, the outer striae evidently punctate; interstices distinctly but not
very closely punctured, the 2nd becomes obsolete behind the middle; apices
rounded singly.
Nearly allied to C. barbata (529), and perhaps only one of several
varieties. It is distinguished by the rather distant sculpture of the
thorax and the abbreviation of the 2nd elytral interstices.
Length, 16 mm. ; breadth, 5 mm.
Mount Alpha, near Wellington. Found under stones, at an altitude
of 4,700 ft., by Mr. H. W. Simmonds.
3240. Corymbites fulvescens sp. nov. Corymbites Latreillr, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 299.
Elongate, subparallel, nitid; fulvescent, the head, thorax, and basal
five joints of the antennae reddish, legs testaceous, tibiae lighter than
the tarsi ; elytra densely clothed with slender yellowish hairs, the thorax
more sparingly.
Head densely punctured and distinctly pubescent. Thorax, in the
middle, scarcely longer than broad, somewhat curvedly narrowed near
430 Transactions.
the front, subparallel behind; its basal angles finely carinate above and
directed backwards, the anterior prominent but obtuse; the surface
moderately closely and rather finely punctate, still more finely near the
base; there is no median impression. Elytra thrice the length of the
thorax, a little wider near the hind thighs than at the shoulders, their
apices emarginate and minutely angulate; they are finely punctate-
striate, with minutely sculptured interstices.
Underside fulvescent, very finely clothed and punctured, the sternal
structure similar to that of C. antipodum .
Antennae filiform, attaining the base of the thorax, their 2nd joint
quite half the length of 3rd.
It may be readily identified by being more brightly coloured than any
New Zealand member of the genus. C. antipodum (532) is its nearest
ally, but the punctate elytral striae and the differently formed and less
densely sculptured thorax are distinctive.
Length, 14 mm. ; breadth, 4 mm.
Wairiri, Seaward Kaikouras. A single individual t'ound by Mi-.
W. L. Wallace, of Timaru.
3241. Corymbites vitticollis sp: nov.
Elongate, slightly nitid, fuscous ; the elytra with a broad streak along
the middle of each, and the suture somewhat rufescent; the thorax with
a more definite and rather broad reddish median streak, its sides paler ;
legs and antennae testaceous; the clothing flavescent, rather dense, and
coarser on the head and labrum than it is on the elytra.
Thorax moderately convex, about a fifth longer than broad, in the
middle, posterior angles indistinctly carinate and almost quite straight,
its surface closely and moderately finely punctate. Elytra rather finely
sulcate, the sutural pair of striae impunctate, the punctation of the
others becoming coarser towards the sides, interstices closely and very
finely punctured, the apices simple.
Underside pale castaneous, but with the Hanks of the presternum
testaceous and very distinctly punctured, metasternum medially sulcate,
abdomen finely and closely punctate; with fine greyish-yellow pubescence.
Antennae short, not attaining the base of thorax, their 2nd joint only
a little shorter than the 3rd, which is rather shorter than the 4th. Tarsi
elongate, their penultimate joint but little more than half the length of
the 3rd.
Distinguishable from G. strangulatus by its coloration, simple and
less divergent thoracic posterior angles, differentry formed antennae, &c.
Length, 13 mm.; breadth, 3| mm.
Silver-stream, near Wellington. A pair of mounted specimens received
from Mi'. A. O'Connor.
3242. Corymbites approximans sp. nov.
Elongate, a little shining, castaneo-rufous, the legs and basal two
joints of antennae testaceous, remaining joints infuscate; pubescence
yellowish-grey.
Thorax closely and moderately finely punctate in the middle, about a
fifth longer than broad, with slightly divergent and finely carinate pos-
terior angles. Elytra with narrow impuncate striae, interstices closely
and finely punctured, apices simple.
Underside rufo-fuscous, densely and finely punctate and pubescent,
metasternum medially sulcate.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. -131
Antennae filiform and elongate, reaching backwards just beyond the
middle femora, 2nd joint more than half the length of 3rd, the latter as
long as the 4th.
In some respects like C . antipodum (532), but differing from it in
colour, &c. It is easily separable from C. vitticollis by the impunctate
elytra! striae.
$. Length, 13 mm.; breadth, 3 mm.
Silverstream. Also discovered by Mr. O'Connor.
3243. Corymbites sternalis sp. now
Elongate, rather slender, slightly nitid; elytra fusco-rufous, the
thorax of a lighter hue, with its sides and base subtestaceous, the legs,
palpi, and basal two joints of antennae testaceous, the other joints
fuscous ; rather closely covered with slender yellowish hairs.
Head very distinctly and closely punctured. Thorax slightly longer
than broad, basal angles very slightly divergent, not perceptibly carinate;
the surface closely and moderately finely punctate. Elytra with simple
apices, the striae nearest the suture rather fine and impunctate, the outer
ones distinctly yet rather finely punctured, the punctation of the inter-
stices very fine and close.
Antennae elongate, extending as far as the intermediate thighs, their
2nd joint fully half the length of the 3rd, which equals the 4th. Tarsi
elongate, their penultimate joint well developed.
Underside fusco-rufous, closely and very finely punctate, with slender
greyish pubescence; flanks of prosternum testaceous, densely and rather
finely punctured, saltatorial process fuscous.
Rather smaller than 532, much more brightly coloured, its thorax
differently shaped, not at all straight-sided.
Length, 10 mm. ; breadth, 2h mm.
Silverstream. The third species of this genus obtained by Mr.
O'Connor within a limited area, and, so far as I know, not occurring
elsewhere.
Group Dasctllidae.
3244. Atopida basalis sp. nov. Atopida White. Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
pp. 311 and 1141.
Elongate, slightly nitid; head and thorax fusco-rufous, elytra cas-
taneous with suffused dark marks, legs and palpi testaceous; antennae
infuscate from the 4th joint onwards, 2nd and 3rd yellowish, the basal
joint rufescent; clothed with decumbent yellowish hairs, those on the
elytra coarser and greyish.
Head large, including the slightly convex eyes, as broad as the front
of thorax, closely and rather finely punctate-granulose. Thorax nearly
twice as broad as long, base and apex subtruncate, with acutely rect-
angular angles, the anterior somewhat depressed, its sides sinuously
narrowed behind, in one example strongly rounded at the middle; the
sculpture dense, less close at the basal margin, not coarse, punctate-
granulose. Scutellum triangular, elongate. Elytra evidently broader
than thorax at the base and about four times its length, subparallel,
slightly transversely impressed before the middle, irregularly but not
coarsely punctured, with a tendency to become subgranulose near the
shoulders.
432 Transactions.
Antennae reaching backwards to beyond the base of the elytra, their
1st joint stout, 2nd short and moniliform, 4th thicker than 3rd and quite
as long.
In A. sinuata (2524) a basal sinuosity near each side of the thorax
causes the posterior angles to appear as if they were directed backwards;
this is not the case in the present species, which, moreover, has more
finely sculptured elytra, differently coloured antennae, and larger eyes.
Length, 5| mm. ; breadth, 2 J mm.
Kaitoke, near Wellington. I am indebted to Mr. A. O'Connor for a
pair of specimens.
3245. Mesocyphon mandibularis sp. nov. Mesocyphon Sharp, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 316.
Robust, subdepressecl, moderately nitid, unevenly clad with distinct
yellowish pubescence; rufescent, the elytra with irregular fuscous and
testaceous marks.
Head densely and distinctly but not coarsely punctured. Eyes pro-
minent. Mandibles elongate, more than half of their whole length ex-
posed. Antennae elongate, rather stout, their 3rd joint almost as long
and thick as the 4th; 5-10 about equal, their length about double the
breadth, each narrowed towards the base; 11th oviform; they bear fine
pubescence. Thorax a third broader than long, its apex slightly bisinuate,
anterior angles rectangular and only a little deflexed ; its sides nearly
straight and distinctly margined, with nearly rectangular basal angles;
its sculpture is like that of the head, but on a spot at each side of the
interrupted median impression the punctures are more distant. Scutel-
lum large, thickly pubescent. Elytra evidently wider than thorax at the
base, gradually expanded backwards; on each, alongside the suture, there
is a shallow basal impression which is curved outwards and becomes
broader near the middle; there is also an indefinite discoidal costa; their
punctation is rather finer than that of the head.
There is no perceptible curtailment of the anterior portion of the
head; the unusual exposition of the mandibles is caused by their length.
It is rather larger than M. divergens (575), with a broader head, and
impressed thorax and elytra.
Length, 7£ mm. ; breadth, 3J mm.
Mount Alpha, Tararua Range. Several specimens found under a
stone, at a height of 4,800 ft., by Mr. H. Simmon ds, who presented me
with a pair.
3246. Cyphon pachymerus sp. nov. Cyphon Payk, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 318.
Subopaque, broadly oval, slightly convex; elytra densely clothed with
inconspicuous, slender, cinereous pubescence; body smoky black, legs and
basal two joints of antennae fuscous.
Head short and broad, very minutely granulate. Antennae with the
3rd joint very small, yet rather longer than broad, 4th evidently larger
than the following ones. Thorax strongly transverse, its sides but little
rounded, their margins much finer than the basal, with subrectangular
angles, the anterior somewhat deflexed, its sculpture like that of the head.
Scutellum large. Elytra ample, without depressions, closely and finely
punctured.
Broun.— New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 433
Femora incrassate, the posterior particularly; hind tibiae with a pale,
very elongate terminal calcar. These two characteristics at once differen-
tiate this species from its allies. In general appearance C . aethiops (1730)
most nearly resembles it.
An aberrant .species, probably representing a distinct genus.
Length, nearly 3 mm. ; breadth, quite Ik mm.
Silverstream. Both of my specimens were discovered by Mr. A.
O'Connor, of Wellington.
Group Mei.vridak.
3247. Arthracanthus foveicollis sp. nov. A rthr acanthus Broun, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 781.
Elongate, slightly nitid; pubescence greyish, slender yet quite dis
tinct; elytra, legs, and basal four joints of antennae more or less infus-
cate, tibiae rather more rufescent, remaining joints of antennae piceous,
head and thorax nigrescent.
Head slightly broader than thorax, with a large median fovea behind;
it is finely and distantly punctate. Eyes large and prominent. Thorax
of equal length and breadth, obtusely dilated laterally at the middle,
distinctly but finely and rather distantly punctiired, with a median linear
impression in front, a basi.l fovea at the middle, and a shallow impression
at each side. Scutellum distinct. Elytra elongate, subparallel, wider
than thorax at the base ; distinctly, moderately closely, and rugosely
punctured.
Antennae stout, not serrate, basal two joints thick, 3-5 moderately
elongate and about equal, 6-10 similarly elongate, 9th and 10th somewhat
triangular, 11th elongate-oval. Legs elongate, the basal joint of the
anterior tarsi with a spiniform process at its front or inner angle.
Female. — Occipital fovea absent. Basal joint of anterior tarsi very
short, not distinctly spinose.
The thoracic fovea is distinctive.
Length, 2|mm.; breadth, § mm.
Akatarawa, Wellington. Two specimens, mounted on cardboard, from
Mr. A. O'Connor.
Croup Ct.eri.dae.
3248. Phymatophaea griseipennis sp. nov. Phymatophaea Pascoe, Man.
N.Z. Coleopt., p. 334.
Elongate, subdepressed, with numerous erect, slender greyish setae,
subopaque; nigrescent, but the elytra, with the exception of their basal
portion, are yellowish-grey; antennae and tarsi infuscate.
Head very closely and coarsely punctured. Thorax of about equal
length and breadth, obtusely dilated laterally behind the middle, its punc-
tation hardlv as close and coarse as that of the head, finer in front, with
a pair of smooth, slightly raised spots before the middle. Scutellum sub-
triangular. Elytra thrice as long as thorax, not twice its width at the
base, rather wider behind, without inequalities of surface; evenly punc-
tured, more coarsely but not quite so closely as the thorax.
Legs pilose, anterior tibiae moderately curved. Tarsi with well-
developed membranous appendages, claws thickened but not dentate.
Eyes prominent, finely faceted, emarginate in front.
Length, 5 mm. ; breadth, If mm.
Silverstream, near Wellington. A single specimen, from Mr, A.
O'Connor.
1-5— Tran§,
4:34 Transactions.
3249. Parmius violaceus sp. nov. Parmius Sharp. Man. N.Z. Coleopt.
p. 331.
Elongate, subdepressed, shining; violaceous, the tibiae and basal two
joints of antennae fusco-testaceous, remaining joints and the tarsi darker,
the front of the forehead and the clypeus pale yellow; the body and legs
with numerous outstanding conspicuous pallid hairs.
Head, including the large prominent eyes, as broad as the middle of
thorax, longitudinally bi-impressecl in front ; it is very irregularly, finely,
and indistinctly punctured. Thorax of about equal length and breadth,
a good deal dilated laterally near the middle; its surface apparently
impunctate but finely transversely rugose, with an angular basal impres-
sion and a pair of small shallow foveae near each side. Elytra a little
uneven, with slightly elevated irregular rugae.
Antennae rather short, their basal joint stout and evidently longer
than 2nd; joints 3—8 differ but little, each longer than broad; club tri-
articulate, its intermediate joint cordate and hardly as long as the others.
More robust than the representative species, 602. In this species, as
well as 602, 603, and 2037, there is a more or less definite emargination
of the eyes; the author's generic diagnosis therefore requires correct ion .
Length, 6^ mm. ; breadth, 2 mm.
Mount Quoin. Described from a mounted specimen forwarded by Mr.
Hubert W. Simmonds.
Group Anobiidae
3250. Anobium inaequale sp. nov. Anobium Pabricius. Man. N.Z
Coleopt.. p. 339.
Cylindric, uneven, variegate; fuscous, the hase and the elevations
of the elytra somewhat rufescent, legs and antennae rufo-piceous, tarsi
obscure fusco - testaceous ; vestiture unequally distributed, variegated,
flavescent and greyish.
Head vertical in front, slightly narrower than thorax. Eyes huge
and subrotundate. Thorax rather broader than it is long, somewhat con
stricted near the middle, apex slightly rounded, posterior angles obtusely
rectangular; distinctly gibbous on the middle, its sculpture close and
granular. Elytra rather broader than thorax, their apices individually
rounded and not entirely covering the pygidium; with minute, dense,
rugose, and granular sculpture, and series of punctures winch are regular
along the sides but more or less interrupted on the dorsum ; on each
elytron, near the suture, there is a slight basal elevation, a narrower but
more distinct elevation in line with the hind thigh, and a nodosity on
top of the apical declivity; in advance of the last, hut nearer the side,
there is an oblique one; besides these, some smaller asperities are visible.
Antennae elongate, basal joint stout, 2nd short, joints 3-8 inwardly
serrate, 9-11 elongate, the 9th being almost as long as the preceding four
combined. Tarsi gradually expanded, penultimate joint broadly excavate
above, the 5th short and thick, dilated towards the extremity, so as to
be of elongate-cordate contour, with thick claws.
Macranobium truncatum (161.'') is the only species that is at all
similar, but the antennal structure is manifestly different.
Length, 5 mm. ; breadth, nearly 2 mm.
Titahi Bay, Wellington. A single mounted specimen from Mr. A.
O'Connor, and one, minus legs and antennae, received from Mr. Hubert
Simmonds.
Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. £35
3251. Anobium niticolle sp. uov.
Cylindric, nigrescent, legs and antennae rufo - piceous ; head and
thorax moderately nitid ; elytra dull, covered with hue ami rather short
cinereous pubescence.
Head vertical in front, the occiput closely and minutely punctate.
Eyes very prominent. Thorax moderately dilated laterally near the
middle, base and apex gently rounded, its length and breadth about
equal; there are no superficial inequalities, the middle of the disc is very
sparingly punctured, the base distinctly and very closely, the apex much
more finely. Scutellum quadrate. Elytra broader than thorax, elongate-
oblong, apical margins moderately expanded; they are rather densely
and minutely sculptured and rugose, and have numerous series of mode-
i ate punctures.
Antennae inserted in front of the eyes; basal joint stout; 2nd much
smaller, yet longer than broad; 3rd longer than 2nd; joints 4-10 more
or less serrate, each evidently longer than broad; 11th slightly longer
than LOthj but hardly as broad as it is. Legs moderately elongate, inter-
mediate femora distinctly thickened at the extremity. Tarsi gradually
dilated, basal joint of the anterior as long as the following two combined,
4th deeply and widely excavate above and prolonged more than half-way
under the 5th, which is short and thick, with stout, basally thickened
claws.
Described from a single specimen mounted on cardboard and smeared
with gum, so that all the structural details could not be seen. It is
therefore treated provisionally as an aberrant Anobium, from which,
however, it may be readily separated by the structures of the antennae
and tarsi.
Length, 3£ mm. ; breadth, IJmra.
Silverstream. Discovered bv Mr. O'Connor.
Group Opatridak.
3252. Syrphetodes truncatus sp. nov. Syrphetodes Pascoe, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 351.
Opaque, dark fuscous, elytral margins slightly rufescent, antennae
and legs obscure rufous, tibiae indefinitely maculate, the palpi and
terminal joint of the tarsi bright castaneo-rufous ; the squamiform setae
decumbent, very short, yellowish.
Head with a smooth central spot, the forehead obtusely elevated in
front so as to be on nearly the same plane as the antennary orbits ;
there is no perceptible sculpture. Thorax, in the middle, about a fourth
broader than long, anterior angles acute and projecting as far as the
centre of the prominent eyes, the apex medially deeply emarginate; its
sides slightly sinuate and narrowed before the middle, with a shorter
and deeper sinuositj- behind, so that the posterior angles seem somewhat
acutely prominent; disc obtusely and slightly raised, but not nodose,
behind the centre, its sculpture fine and indefinite, apparently granular.
Elytra oblong, their sides almost quite straight from behind the shoulders
to the hind thighs, curvedly narrowed behind, the apices, nevertheless,
are rather broad and obliquely truncate towards the suture, the base is
evidently broader than that of the thorax, and there is a slight projec-
tion behind each rounded shoulder; their punetation is not quite seriate,
436 Transactions.
and a little coarser near the suture than elsewhere, their sides have
several coarse, smooth foveae ; on each elytron there are 4 distinct tuber-
cular elevations; the 1st is basal, near the scutellum, the 2nd before the
middle, the 3rd on top of the apical declivity; these are nearly in line;
the 4th is placed just outside and a little in advance of the 2nd; there
are 4 smaller ones near the 3rd, the innermost pair being near the suture.
Underside fuscous, covered with short tawny setae. Intermediate
coxae as far apart as the anterior pair, the posterior slightly more
approximated. Basal ventral segment longer than the 2nd in the middle,
cuneiform between the coxae, 4th rather shorter than 3rd, 5th simple.
Epipleurae broad nearly to the extremity
Antennae with short brassy setae, their basal joint twice as thick but
not much longer than the 2nd, which is almost half the length of the
3rd, joints 4-8 about equal; club finely pubescent.
A rather elongated species, with broad, obliquely truncate elytral
apices, and unusually brightly coloured palpi.
Length, 12 mm.; breadth, 5 J mm.
Mount Quoin. My specimen was found by Mr. A. O'Connor.
Group DlAPERIDAE.
3253. Menimus lineatus sp. nov. Menimus Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 360.
Oblong-oval, slightly transversely convex, nitid; nearly glabrous,
there being only a few slender, erect, inconspicuous greyish setae on the
hind-body; those on the forehead and legs, however, are more easily
seen, as they are more elongate and flavescent; body somewhat infuscate
piceo-rufous, the lateral margins and apical portion of elytra paler ;
legs, antennae, and palpi more or less ferruginous.
Head smaller than thorax, finely yet quite distinctly but not closely
punctured. Eyes minute. Thorax a third broader than long, very
slightly curvedly narrowed anteriorly, nearly straight behind, where
the lateral margins are more expanded than they are in front; the
apex is bisinuate, with obtuse angles; base subtruncate, closely applied
to the elytra, its angles rectangular but not at all prominent; the
punctation distant, and rather finer than that of the head ; just in
front of the fine basal margin and parallel to it there is a fine linear
impression which appears more definite when examined sideways. Scu-
tellum broadly triangular, finely punctate. Elytra twice the length of
the thorax, of about the same width, but witli the rather acute humeral
angles extending just outside the hind angles of the thorax; they are
gradually narrowed posteriorly, with a corresponding diminution of the
lateral margins, which when looked at from above seem quite obsolete ;
their punctures are subseriate, rather coarser near the sides and suture
than those of the thorax, and become indistinct behind.
Antennae stout, rather short ; 2nd and 3rd joints rather longer than
broad, each evidently longer than the uncovered portion of the 1st; 4th
quadrate; joints 5-7 of about equal length, but successively expanded,
narrowed towards the base; 8th and 9th large, transverse, narrowed
backwards; 10th large, subrotundate.
Legs moderately slender; tibiae with minute terminal spurs; basal
joint of posterior tarsi rather shorter than the 2nd and 3rd combined.
Broun. — Neiv Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 437
In shape intermediate between the elongated M. oblongus (656) and
.1/. thoracicus (662) and the series of more thickset species, such as M.
crassus, but separable from these by the linear impression across the
base of the thorax.
Length 3^ mm. ; breadth, U- mm.
Erua. Unique. January, 1910.
Group Helopidae.
3254. Adelium complicatum sp. now Adeiium Kirby, Man. N.Z.
Coleopt., p. 386.
Elongate, subdepressed, glabrous, nitid; nigro-violaceous, legs inclu-
sive; antennae and palpi fuscous; labium fusco-rufous.
Head uneven, irregularly and coarsely punctured, somewhat depressed
and coarsely rugose between the eyes. Thorax distinctly margined, a
third broader than long in the middle, its sides slightly rounded from
the obtuse front angles backwards, but near the base moderately narrowed
and nearly quite straight, with rectangular angles; disc with a median
linear impression from base to apex but not sharply defined, basal fossae
somewhat indefinite and situated nearer to the sides than the middle;
its punctation moderate and irregular; there are several slightly raised
and depressed spots which cause the surface to appear uneven; the base
and middle of the apex are nearly truncate. Scutellum subquadrate,
transverse. Elytra more than double the length of thorax, slightly
broader than it is at the base, nowhere more than a half broader; the
shoulders strongly margined and a little curvate; they are gradually
narrowed behind the posterior femora; their sculpture is complex, con-
sisting of smooth, longitudinal, linear and irregularly curved elevations
and minutely punctate intervals.
Tibiae stout, curvate externally, the anterior most so near the ex-
tremity, the posterior above the middle, but below that part slightly
twisted and laterally compressed.
The general contour is intermediate between the parallel-sided series,
such as A. Zealand iciim, and the broader A', bullatum, with the base of
the thorax resting on the elytra. A. gratiosum (2055) is a much larger
insect. In A. bullatum the elytra! sculpture consists, to a great extent,
of oviform elevations; these are not smooth, being more or less distinctly
punctate.
Underside piceous, feebly rugose, basal ventral segment very broadly
rounded between the coxae.
Length, 14 mm. ; breadth, 4£ mm.
Greymouth. Unique. Secured by Mr. J. H. Lewis over a year ago.
3255. Cerodolus curvellus'sp. nov. Cerodolus Sharp. Man. N.Z. Coleopt.
p. 1161.
Elongate-oval, moderately convex, glabrous, nitid ; nigro-aeneous,
elytra somewhat iridescent, the legs, antennae, and palpi rufo-castaneous.
Head finely punctate, rather more distantly behind than in front;
antennary orbits almost fiat. Thorax fully a third broader than long,
base distinctly bisinuate, its sides finely margined and gently curved,
front angles rounded, the posterior obtusely rectangular; disc finely
yet quite definitely but not closely punctured, and with a slight basal
depression between the middle and each side. Scutellum short and
438 Transactions.
broad. Elytra slightly broader than thorax at The base, nearly thrice its
length, a little wider just before the middle than elsewhere, considerably
narrowed posteriorly, with well- developed margins; each elytron lias
eight series of moderate punctures, two of these are quite lateral, the
three nearest the suture, behind the middle, are substriate ; the inter-
stices are finely punctured.
Antennae scarcely as long as the head and thorax, joints 7-11 a little
broader and more distinctly pubescent than the others, the exposed por-
tion of the basal joint is much stouter than the 2nd but hardly at all
longer, the next is longer than the 4th, the terminal elongate-oval.
In ('. chrysomeloides the elytra! punctures are less numerous and
quite foveiform. C. genialis (2059) more nearly resembles this species,
in which, however, the anterior angles of the thorax are more broadly
rounded and the sides almost evenly curved, the elytra! punctures are
nowhere coarse, and in 2059 the 4th antennal joint is almost as long as
the 3rd. The vestiture of the front tarsi is rather dense and nearly
grey-
Length, 8 mm. ; breadth, 3§ mm.
Advance Peak, Otago. One found by Mr. F. S. Oliver, and sent to
me by Professor Chilton. The pygidium is unnaturally distended and
uncovered, owing to saturation with alcohol.
Group Anthicidae.
3256. Cotes insignis sp. nov. Cotes Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 410.
Elongate, subdepressed, clothed with slender fulvescent hairs, head
and thorax shining, dark rufous; elytra, at the base, also rufous, of a
pale chestnut-red across the middle, someAvhat nigrescent behind, but
light red at the apex; the legs, antennae, and palpi rufescent, tarsi
yellowish.
Head broader than the thorax, the vertex smooth, with a few in-
distinct punctures near the eyes. Thorax quite equalling in length the
width of its basal portion, deeply constricted behind the middle, in
front of the contraction it is subglobose ; it exhibits no definite sculp-
ture. Scutellum triangular. Elytra not double the breadth of the
thorax, but more than thrice its length; rather finely yet quite percep-
tibly, but not perfectly seriately, punctured from the base to the hind
femora, the posterior sculpture obsolete ; there is a slight obtuse eleva-
tion on each at the base, and the pale central portion is very slightly
depressed; the pygidium is uncovered, and nearly testaceous.
Eyes large, prominent, and distinctly faceted. Antennae stout, dis-
tinctly pubescent, reaching backwards to the middle thighs, their 2nd
joint nearly as long as the 1st and more than half the length of the
3rd, the 11th scarcely any longer than the penultimate.
C. rufa only, from Mokohinau Island, resembles this species; it is
larger, but in 2072 the punetation of the wing-cases is much more dis-
tinct, and, before the middle, a broad area is covered with fine golden
pubescence.
Length, 51 mm. ; breadth, If mm.
Kaitoke, near Wellington. My specimen is another of Mr. A.
O'Connor's novelties. In his specimen tine white hairs almost form a
fringe across the dark part of the elytra.
Broun. — New Gtnera and Species of Coleoptera. 439
( , roup M RLANDRYIDAE.
3257. Hylobia plagiata sp. nov. Hylobia B oun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,
p. 403.
Convex, very elongate oval, slightly nitid, fusco-castaneous, legs and
antennae fusco-testaceous, tibiae half fuscous; each elytron with 3
obscure rufo-testaceous spots at the side, behind the middle; pubescence
cinereous, very fine, rather dense, and lying close to the derm.
Head of about the same width behind as the apex of thorax, derlexed,
with flat eyes. Thorax a little broader than long, slightly rounded late-
rally, base bisimiate, with a depression between the middle and each
side, its surface with minute transversal sculpture, which in some lights
appears granular. Scutellum transversely quadrate. Elytra four times
the length of thorax, of the same width as it is at the base, wider roar
the middle, acuminate posteriorly; their suture well marked and slightly
rufescent, the sculpture similar to that of the thorax.
Antennae elongate, 2nd joint rather shorter than 3rd, the following
joints very gradually and slightly expanded, 9th and 10th subquadrate.
Spurs of posterior tibiae closely pectinate, hardly as long as the basal
tarsal joint. Anterior tarsi moderately elongate, basal joint nearly the
length of thj3 subquadrate 2nd and 3rd taken together, 4th subquadrate,
angularly emarginate at apex, 5th rather longer than its predecessor,
half its width ; claws simple.
Somewhat similar to H. calida (715), but readily distinguishable by
the more elongate outline, separately acuminate and trimaculate elytra.
Length, 5 mm. ; breadth, 1| mm.
Hayward's, near Wellington. One individual, mounted on cardboard,
from Mr. H. W. Simmonds.
3258. Hylobia guinnessi sp. nov.
Convex, very elongate oval, covered with slender, depressed, ashy
pubescence, subopaque ; head and thorax castaneous, elytra of a choco-
late lfue, legs fusco-rufous, tarsi and antennae obscure testaceous, the
joints of the hinder pairs of tarsi tipped with fuscous, palpi rlavescent.
Head finely punctured, rather distantly in front, its breadth about
half that of the middle of thorax. Eyes moderately prominent, with
coarse facets, gradually obliquely narrowed downwards. Thorax sub-
truncate at base, its sides gently curved, but, owing to the deflexed
angles, appearing much rounded in front; the apex, in the middle,
however, is nearly straight; the sculpture is fine on the disc, a little
coarser at the sides, but ill-defined; it is a third broader than long as
seen from above. Scutellum invisible. Elytra of same width as thorax
at the base, but more than thrice its length, a little broader near the
middle, attenuate posteriorly; the suture is slightly depressed, their
sculpture is rather closer than that of the thorax and equally indefinite ;
there are no distinct punctures, granules, or transverse lines.
Antennae inserted close to the front of the eyes, their 2nd joint more
than half the length and thickness of the basal; 3-5 almost equal, each
longer than "2nd; joints 7-10 a little dilated, 9th and 10th as long as
broad, 11th slightly larger.
'J ibiae with short pubescence, the anterior slightly curved along the
inner edge, with a rather thick calcar at the inner extremity; basal
joint of the tarsi as long as 2nd and 3rd combined, 4th bilobed and cleft
140 Transactions.
nearly to the base, 5th us long as the preceding two, with simple slender
claws. Spurs of posterior tibiae distinctly pectinate, as long as the
dilated tibiae, but shorter than the basal tarsal joint.
The prevailing indefinite sculpture and apparent absence of the scu-
tellum are good distinguishing characters.
Length, 4 mm.; breadth, limni.
Makatote. Mr. W. J. Guinness, whose name is bestowed on this
species, forwarded a package of leaf -mould which he collected near the
viaduct in February, 1910. Besides some other rare species, one of this
was found amongst the decaying leaves.
[To be concluded in a subsequent volume.]
APPENDIX.
RECORDS OF MILNE SEISMOGRAPHS, 1906-1911.
Records of the Milne Seismographs Nos. 16 and 20, taken at
Christchurch and Wellington by H. F. Skey and G. Hogben.
Communicated by G. Hogben, M.A., F.G.S.
P1; first phase ; P2, second phase ; P3, P4, P5, large waves. Time is Greenwich
mean civil time, given in hours, minutes, and decimals of minutes ; 0 or 24R. = mid-
night. B.P., boom period.
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16, at the Magnetic Observatory, Christ-
church, New Zealand. (Latitude, 43° 32' S. ; longitude, 172° 37' E.
Director, Henry F. Skey, B.Sc.)
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1906.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
Jan. 3
2 03-7
2 09-9
0-4
1 10
,. 4
4 08-7
4 33-5
0-3
0 51
„ 18
1 35-3
. .
0 28
Thickening of line.
, 22
4 16-9
4 231
1-5
0 44
„ 24
7 46-2
. .
0 49
Thickening of line.
„ 24
22 01-2
22 04-3
0-4
End between 22h. 09-4m. and 22h.
13-6m. while attending instru-
ment.
„ 25
1 53-9
. .
0 16
Slight thickening.
„ 30
23 00- 5
. .
, .
Slight swelling.
„ 31
j
16 030
15-5
?
? P2.. Beginning and end obscured
by tremors.
Feb. 1
2 30-9
. ,
, .
2 36- 1
2 39-2
2 42-3
2-95
1 09
„ 2
0 21-6
. .
. .
0 19
Thickening of line.
» 5
4 29-1
. .
. .
, ,
Pi-
4 33-2
4 34-3
3-45
1 15
„ 8
0 20-7
. .
0 52
Thickening of line.
„ 10
9 16-3
9 29-7
0-4
0 22
„ 12
6 46-2
. .
Pi-
6 49-3
6 53-4
1-5
0 52
„ 14
0 40-7
0 45-9
10
0 26
„ 16
23 28-7
, ,
Pi-
23 32-8
23 380
1-4
0 56
„ 19
2 07-2
Pi-
2 12-4
2 22-7
2 24- 1
17*0+
2 54
» 20
6 07-2
6 11-8 i
0-2
0 14
Mar. 3
j
9 51-3 :
0-7
?
Beginning and end obscured by night
tremors.
„ 8
21 27-5
21 32-7
0-5
0 09
„ 9
j
19 32-6
5-4
1
Beginning and end obscured by night
tremors.
„ 10
6 40-8
. .
6 48- 1
6 51-2
5-3
?
Beginning and end obscured by night
tremors.
16— Trans.
442
Transactions.
Records of Milne Seismograph iVo. 16 — continued.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1906.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
Mar. 10
16 33-6
16 35-7
8-5
9
Beginning and end obscured by night,
tremors.
„ 11
3 35-7
3 38-8
0-85
0 36
.
„ 11
8 49- 1
8 52-2
0-9
0 30
„ 11
?
21 52-4
0-5
?
Beginning and end obscured by
tremors.
„ 20
2 24-8
2 34-1
0-45
?
End obscured by second quake.
,. 20
3 310
3 32-5
3 33-6
0-75
0 57
April 14
18
19
May
A ug.
29
2
12
„ 13
„ 15
„ I?
„ 18
„ 19
„ 19
„ 19
„ 21
June 1
„ 2
„ 2
„ 2
5
„ o
„ 9
„ 22
„ 24
„ 30
July 12
„ 12
„ 17
„ 19
„ 22
.. 22
.. 23
„ 31
3
3
7
8
9
12
12
(Mean boom period, 15-4 sec. 1 mm. = 0-66" of tilt.)
4 02-9
4 07-5
13 33-6
14 010
6 15-4
6 21-6
6 44-9
13 181
8 11-5
5 28-4
23 41-9
0 41-9
2 31-5
12 58-8
4 40-2
01-4
29-8
28-8
14 43-2
0 28-0
0 00- 1
23 18-6
o
4
6
8
7
8
6
11
3
1
I
22
1
II
(i
9
7 38-1
10 21-5
10 21-5
19-6
18-7
14-1
26-2
32-5
20-3
240
271
40-8
13-6
20- 1
25-8
25-8
4 111
14 300
6
13
8
12
13
5
23
0
2
11
13
5
4
14
0
10-3
470
24-8
131
01-3
23-2
34-6
43-9
43-9
32-6
38-8
16-9
02-9
340
48-4
32-2
12
7
10
11
15'
15
8
1
22
1
11
6
35-2
49-5
410
21-5
45-7
52-9
24-7
25-9
li 41-6
11 39-6
3 21-8
4 53-4
28-6
48-6
18-8
23-2
27-S
17-0+ 1 56
9 360
6-7
70
0-4
1-4
0-45
0-55
0-5
1-2
0-9
0-45
0-4
0-8
10
3-5
0-5
0-9
0-5
0-4
0-35
01
0-4
0-1
0-4
<)•:;.->
0-45
0-9
3-4
0-35
0-25
0-6
0-2
0-25
3 21
4 09
0 38
0 41
0 21
0 42
0 28
0 22
0 26
0 46
0 43
0 56
0 18
•>
0 48
0 04
0 04
0 25
0 05
0 42
0 18
0 16
0 05
0 43
0 24
0 41
0 58
0 11
0 18
0 15
0 14
0 30
? Origin, New Hebrides.
San Francisco. Subsequent tremors
at 17 17-6, 18 19-7, 19 20-7.
I Small, and in middle of night
j tremors.
In middle of night tremors.
B.P.. 15-1 sec.
B.P., 15 sec.
Thickening of line.
End obscured by night tremors.
Very slight.
Very slight thickening.
In middle of night tremors.
Thickening merely.
Very slight thickening.
I Beginning and end obscured by
/ night tremors.
Very slight.
Slight swelling.
Appendix.
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
443
Date.
1906.
Aug. 17
„ 18
„ 22
„ 23
„ 23
„ 26
„ 30
Sept. 6
„ 14
., 14
15
16
17
21
21
29
2
2
.. 2
.. 2
.. 3
•„ 4
„ 11
„ 18
„ 27
„ 29
Nov. 5
9
.. 10
.. 12
.. 14
., 19
Oct.
Max.
Commence-
ment.
.Max.
Ampli-
tude.
1 Duration.
Remarks.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
0 33-3
Valparaiso.
i Subsequent tremors : 6 33 to 7 14,
0 57-3
1 36- 1
1 39-8
minute ; 7 41 to 8 07, minute ;
9 22 to 10 12, minute ; 13 23 to
1 44-4
120
4 18
| 13 25, large ; and minute to
1 14 15-2.
6 56-8
m m
. .
7 01 o
7 03-5
1-85
1 39
?
) Pi. Beginning and end obscured
19 45-6
19 48-7
5-4
1
1 by continuous tremors.
1 44-6
1 48-8
0-8
0 21
16 29-6 i 16 30-6
6 16-7
6 30-7
3 03-5
3 38-7
19 060
19 11-2
13 34-8
16 121
16 19-3
2 43-2
4 24-2
8 52-8
9 02-6
1 280
1 49-7
0 10-2
1 59-8
2 07- 1
?
•?
0 18- 1
06-5
18-8
06-3
52-5
33-9
23 06-2
15
5
4
50-2
31-0
39-6
19 22 05-6
6 34-8
6 45-2
3 46-5
19 11-7
13 530
16 30-2
16 31-7
16 35-9
4 26-8
9 06-2
1 53-3
20 08-2
14 12-7
0 13-8
2
12
14
0
0
221
340
51-6
29-4
45-5
5 36-9
4 08-0
1 58-5
23 34-2
17 57-9
8
8
22
01-7
07-3
10-7
1-25
3-3
1-4
2-4
0-8
20-2
0-4
3-2
1-7
0-8
0-3
170 +
0-85
0-85
0-4
0-4
0*45
0-4
5-6
100
1-2
2 23
1 28
0 10
9
0 03
0 12
0 27
0 33
3 18
9
1 03
0 10
0 55
0 19
0 30
«) 55
0-95 1 16
09-6
15 11-5
2-8
•>
16-2
5 26-5
11
0 41
12-5
4 14-6
■2-r,
0 09
Pt. Beginning and end obscured
by continuous tremors.
B.P., 15 sec.
End obscured by night tremors.
End obscured by night tremors.
End obscured by night tremors.
Minute tremor. Shock noted at
20 10-0 at Christchurch, Cheviot,
and Kaikoura.
Probably night tremors.
B.P., 15 sec.
Subsequent tremors.
Possibly night tremors.
Thickening of line.
Thickening of line.
B.P., 15 sec.
| P]. Beginning and end obscured
| bv night tremors.
I Pi. Beginning and end obscured
I by night tremors.
:; 27
0 52
444
Transactions.
Records of Jlilne Seismograph Xo. 16 — continued.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1906.
Dec. 7
„ 15
„ 17
„ 18
„ 19
1907.
Jan. 4
Feb.
8
14
3
„ 16
„ 27
Mar. 13
April 7
„ 15
„ 18
„ 19
„ 20
„ 22
„ 24
May 4
„ 9
,- 12
13
14
17
23
27
„ 30
„ 31
June 5
H. m.
23 511
3 12-2
22 09-4
9
20 30- 1
0 31-6
0 36-8
5 31-9
5 43-4
13 59-5
5 420
9 54-7
?
20 01-3
21 23-4
21 291
0 46-3
15
5 08-4
18
7 34-9
27
0 59- 1
29
6 06-8
31
■?
9
6
7
21
21
0
0
2
23
24
5
6
8
54-4
32-5
02-0
11-4
39-8
07-2
320
13-5
'!
40-9
02-6
58-3
08-7
29-9
8 04-6
21 23-5
3 50-3
1 22-6
5 08-6
5 13-5
12 51-8
3 46-2
H. m.
23 52- 1
22 12-5
20 30-6
20 35-7
0 44-5
6 07-0
6 12-2
6 22-6
14 02-7
6 21-3
9 56-8
20 01-8
21 31-7
9 191
9 211
5 100
6 08-6
22 13-8
22 17-9
10 02-7
7 30-9
21 48-6
0 36-2
2 21-8
18 10-7
24 04-7
6 180
8 330
8 06-1
21 26-7
4 02-9
1 24-6
11 21-8
5 13-8
5 15-8
22 04-9
12 580
4 23-9
Mm.
0-9
0-75
2*5
8-5
4-5
140
0-5
10
205
4-5
1-25
2-5
4-1
1-5
15
1-3
0-7
11
2-7
11
H. m.
0 12
0 29
0 59
3 18
3 55
?
1 36
0 37
1 32
1 03
0 07
0 10
0 32
0 08
1
'/
2 53
1 39
1 53
1 14
0 58
1
0 07
1-9
0-45 0 32
0-4 0 09
0-4
1-4
0-7
4-9
0-4
B.P.. 15 sec.
Thickening of line.
I Pj. In middle of continuous tre-
mors
I Pi- Beginning and end obscured
i by night tremors.
i B.P., 15 sec. Beginning and end
i obscured by night tremors.
Very small.
B.P., 15 sec. Thickening of line
merely.
Very slight.
Minute.
Minute swellings.
In middle of night tremors.
Followed by continuous tremors.
9
1 54
In middle of night tremors.
End obscured by night tremors.
Very slight.
Beginning and end obscured by
night tremors.
1 Ditto.
In middle of minute night tremors.
I End obscured by night tremors.
In middle of continuous tremors.
I Beginning and end obscured by
I night tremors.
Appendix.
m
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
Max.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1907.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
June 13
9 57-2
10 10-7
0-7
1 52
„ 13
12 17-9
12 210
0-3
0 18
„ 18
9 06-3
9 07-9
1-9
0 11
Felt in towns south of Timaru.
„ 19
17 28-6
m
0 05
Very small, carrot-shaped.
„ 19
19 03-8
' "
„ 27
19 30-7
9
19 32-2
1-9
1 34
22 430
22 49-2
6-0 +
?
In middle of continuous tremors.
July 18
0 48- 1
0 51-2
0-25
0 20
„ 18
5 06-7
5 10-8
0-8
0 38
„ 20
, .
14 21-5
0-8
In middle of night tremors.
„ 29
0 55-7
1 27-3
0-6
0 25
„ 29
19 51-4
20 110
0-4
0 53
Aug. 4
6 39- 1
6 44-8
0-3
1 00
„ 3
7 02-7
7 04-7
0-3
1 10
„ 13
21 54-4
. .
. .
22 05-7
22 06-8
2-4
1 17
„ 16
3 57-7
, ,
"
Small, sudden.
„ 18
6 17-6
6 21-7
0 15
Swelling.
„ 19
6 09-5
6 16-8
-•
0 21
Very small.
„ 23
7 10-0
7 13-1
0 28
9?
,. 23
13 380
13 47-3
01
0 23
„ 28
19 20-8
19 23-9
0-3
0 50
„ 31
8 43-8
8 48-9
0-3
0 16
Sept. 2
16 26-3
, .
. .
. .
16 54-3
16 55-7
1-5
y
After-tremors for about two hours.
„ 15
5 28-3
5 32-9
5 36-6
2-2
1 30
„ 24
6 00-7
. .
0 32
Thickening of line.
„ 24
16 58-6
17 03-8
1-4
0 34
„ 29
5 03-8
0 08
Swelling.
Oct. 2
1 35-6
2 05-8
2 07-7
1-9
1 49
B.P., 15 sec.
„ 10
V
. ,
. .
22 05-1
22 05-8
3-5
y
In middle of continuous tremors.
„ 11
j
14 54-9
5-9
y
In middle of night tremors.
„ 17
4 15-6
4 18-1
0-2
0 19
„ 17
9 00-2
9 02-3
0-4
0 08
Nov. 3
I
1 Beginning and end obscured
by
18 06-3
18 10-9
2-5
y
1 night tremors.
„ 8
12 37-9
12 43- 1
0-4
y
Followed by continuous tremors.
„ 8
21 49-3
21 59-7
0-3
0 23
„ 12
7 100
7 14-2
0-9
1 12
Followed by continuous tremors.
„ 13
3 26-7
3 34-9
0-8
1 03
„ 19
4 54-6
4 59-8
5 11-7
0-9
0 43
,. 19
21 49-4
22 06-5
0-45
0 45
» 21
9 04-9
9 14-8
0-45
0 49
„ 21
20 48-4
21 12-2
0-6
0 49
„ 25
0 29-7
0 33-8
0-3
0 36
„ 26
3 05-8
3 140
0-8
0 46
„ 27
2 06-7
2 09-8
0-35
0 08
,, 28
3 41-9
3 55-3
0-2
0 27
Dec. 11
1 090
1 27-3
0-6
0 53
„ 12
22 13-9
22 18-0
01
0 06
„ 15
•'
. .
. .
1 Beginning and end obscured
by
17 55-3
18 07-8
4-8
y
) night tremors.
„ 18
1 41-3
1 46-5
015
0 09
,. 23
1 36-6
0 29
Thickening of line.
17— Trans.
446
T ran sort ions.
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1907.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
Dec. 30
6 45-3
. .
, .
7 27-8
7 35-5
1-9
2 22
1908.
Jan. 19
7 33-7
7 42-0
01
0 33
„ 20
0 46-5
, .
0 06
Small, carrot-shaped.
„ 24
0 46-8
0 530
0-9
0 56
Feb. 6
1 50-4
0 37
Thickening of line.
„ 6
6 00-2
0 06
Small, carrot-shaped.
„ 7
2 56-5
3 00-6
015
0 07
„ 14
1 03- 1
1 06-2
0-7
0 24
„ 24
23 57-8
24 01-5
24 02-5
1-6
0 38
„ 27
0 21-6
. .
0 03
Minute.
„ 27
9 19-6
0 44
Swellings.
„ 27
"
12 30-4
1-4
?
In middle of continuous tremors.
Maximum appears at beginning of
quake.
„ 29
21 49-6
21 55-8
0-4
0 12
Mar. 5
2 28-8
, .
. ,
, .
2 52- 1
2 59-8
1-6
1 53
„ 15
?
. .
. .
. .
1 Beginning and end obscured by
10 19-4
'10 20-4
2-7
1
) night tremors.
„ 19
3 08-1
3 117
0-5
0 48
,
„ 21
4 25-8
0 38
Thickening of line preceded and
followed by minute tremors.
„ 23
?
. .
. ,
, ,
i Beginning and end obscured by
11 46-6
12 06-2
2-9
?
i night tremors.
„ 26
23 16-3
. .
. .
23 27-6
24 090
24 29-7
4-25
2 59
„ 27
4 11-6
4 53-5
5 15-2
0-55
2 07
April 7
1 26-2
1 37-5
0-5
0 43
B.P., 15-4 sec.
„ io
0 03-6
, .
0 200
0 31 -8
1-55
1 40
„ 12
9 09- 1
9 14-8
0-1
0 17
„ 12
19 18-4
19 360
0-75
0 40
„ 15
6 06-1
6 17-4
0-4
0 28
„ 23
0 070
0 09-6
0 39-9
1-85
2*05
May 5
5 28-8
6 03-8
6 05-4
10
1 40
„ 20
8 00-9
8 24-7
0-8
?
Followed bv night tremors.
„ 21
7 19 1
# .
0 15
Slight,
June 3
■'■
21 25-3
10
■}
In middle of continuous tremors.
„ 18
1 39-0
1 43-7
0-25
0 14
Aug. 17
10 50-8
. .
10 59-5
11 28-4
11 34- 1
.">■.")
2 44
Sept. 2
•?
21 15-8
0-9
V
Beginning and end obscured by
night tremors.
„ 14
3 32-5
3 36-7
0-4
0 19
„ 21
6 55-7
7 11-8
0-9
1 44
„ 22
3 11-8
3 23-7
0-35
0 30
„ 26
5 27-4
. .
5 320
5 34-1
4-9
1 13
Oct. 7
1 00-7
1 21-9
0-8
0 46
„ 13
5 31 0
. .
1 42
Swellings.
Appendix.
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
447
Max.
Da
te.
Commence-
ment.
Max. Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1908.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
Nov.
11
21 22-3
21 300
10
0 59
Preceded by night tremors.
j j
15
2 00-8
0 21
Slight swelling.
j j
22
22 52-7
22 58-4
0-25
0 21
• j
27
0 380
0 411
0-3
0 24
j?
30
21 24- 1
21 27-2
1-9
0 28
Dec.
1
3 05-4
, .
0 38
Swellings.
9*
2
15 12-5
15 15-6
0-25
0 23
99
7
2 00-3
2 06-9
015
0 28
97
8
0 26- 1
0 26-4
0 27-5
6-0
0 15
1 Severe shock in North Canterbury
j and slight in South Canterbury.
99
16
. ,
6 07-7
0-4
. .
In middle of continuous tremors.
99
28
4 40-9
4 55-3
5 00-5
5 07-8
5 20-9
^
5 300
6 07-2
6 13-4
i- 0-6
2 22
Subsequent tremor at 7 171. Origin,
Italy.
6 17-1
i
6 20-2
J
6 24-3
1909.
Jan.
1
4 11-7
. .
. .
0 07
Swelling.
?>
3
21 46-5
. .
21 51-2
21 52-2
21 54-3
6-4
0 23
1 In progress while attending to
I instrument.
»5
17
3 17-9
3 28-2
0-4
0 25
99
21
2 38-4
2 47-7
0-5
0 29
99
23
3 49-6
1 37
Tremors.
J?
28
0 38-5
0 04
Thickening merely.
J?
29
0 59-8
1 15-9
0-3
0 45
55
29
•?
13 33-4
1-5
1
In middle of night tremors.
Feb.
11
1
. .
. .
, .
I Beginning and end obscured by
18 24-2
18 25-8
2-3
?
I night tremors.
JS
22
9 26-7
. .
, ,
9 31-3
9 370
3-4
1 53
?J
27
?
13 33-4
1-5
?
Beginning and end obscured by
night tremors.
Mar.
8
11 45-7
11 56-0
11 56-5
1-9
1 B.P., 15-4 sec. End obscured by
f night tremors.
11 59- 1
?
99
10
7 37-4
7 38-4
0-45
0 05
99
17
23 05-2
, .
. .
23 32-3
23 35-9
3-3
3 56
)?
22
22 05-3
. .
, .
. .
22 06-4
22 07-4
17-0 +
2 16
Direotion N. and S. Felt in south-
ern towns.
JJ
26
1 53-8
* "
* "
0 06
Maximum at beginning. Ampli-
tude very slight. Felt in Christ-
church ; direction N. and S.
April 1
5 33-4
. .
, .
B.P., 15-5 sec.
5 43-8
5 45-9
5 46-9
6-0
2 05
99
12
1 14-3
. .
. m
1 18-5
1 22-6
3-95
1 29
J)
22
7 14-8
7 15-8 0-2
0 27
??
27
12 54-7
• • • *
1 13 09-0
13 19-3
6-8
2 01
448
Transactions.
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
Date.
Comrueuee-
ment.
.Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1909.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
May 2
7 06- 1
. .
, •
. .
7 12-3
7 15-4
1-9
1 25
„ 2
. .
15 24-4
. .
Very slight.
„ 2
18 20-3
. .
, .
18 25-4
18 29-6
2-5
0 57
„ 11
V
13 21-7
1-75
?
In middle of air-tremors.
„ 12
0 57-2
1 19-3
0-3
0 55
„ 17
8 20-2
8 31-0
0-9
1 37
. „ 24
7 13-4
7 170
0-5
0 12
„ 25
4 59-7
5 27-6
11
1 08
„ 30
?
, ,
, ,
. .
21 35-9
21 37-9
2-9
?
Beginning obscured by air-tremors.
June 3
18 52-7
. .
. ,
19 24-8
19 37-7
2-2
2 52
„ 8
6 09-7
6 11-8
6 39-7
6 55-2
0-7
7 13-9
. .
?
End obscured by air-tremors.
„ 9
0 51-0
. .
. .
0 04
Very small ; maximum at beginning.
„ 12
20 25-5
. .
, ,
20 29- 1
20 34-3
7-5
1 36
„ 14
7 311
7 38-4
0-4
0 22
„ 15
1 19-8
. .
0 40
Thickening merely.
„ 26
9 35-8
9 36-6
0-1
0 04
„ 27
7 22-0
, .
. w
, ,
7 30-3
7 35-5
4,-1
1 59
„ 28
¥
15 290
0-7
?
Beginning and end obscured by air-
July 1
13 03-7
13 10-9
0-3
0 28
tremors.
„ 2
6 25-9
6 28-5
0-1
0 31
„ 5
?
17 55-3
3-5
?
Beginning and end obscured by air-
„ 10
13 40-3
13 42-8
14 11-3
0-4
0 33
tremors.
„ 26
22 06-6
22 08- 1
. .
0 16
Slight thickening.
„ 27
4 34-5
4 36- 1
0-2
0 29
„ 30
11 16-5
11 16-5
0-8
. .
First maximum at beginning.
11 31-2
. .
2 34
? Origin, Mexico.
Aug. 4
6 18-3
6 20-4
0-1
0 06
„ 6
5 46-0
5 49- 1
0-4
0 11
„ 10
6 56-1
7 01-2
0-25
0 22
„ 13
12 19-7
12 21-7
0-25
0 06
„ 16
7 54-6
8 17-7
0-4
0 42
„ 18
0 35-4
t n
. ,
0 46-2
0 56-4
3-9
0 29
In progress while attending to
instrument.
„ 29
23 59.5
1 34
Thickening of line
Sept. 3
8 112
8 18-4
0-35
0 19
B.P., 15-5 sec.
„ 25
12 29-6
12 32-7
0-5
0 14
Oct, 3
1 28-8
, ,
2 15
Thickening.
„ 4
13 53-2
14 070
0-9
V
End obscured by air-tremors.
„ 21
0 45-5
. .
0 55
Thickenings.
„ 23
1
21 28-9
V
Beginning obscured by air-tremorm.
„ 27
1 32-3
1 33-3
0-35
0 36
„ 30
10 33-8
11 020
0-9
?
End obscured by air-tremors.
Nov. 3
6 19-0
. .
• •
6 23-9
6 25-4
3-25
1 16
„ 10
5 55-6
, .
0 11
Thickening of line.
„ 10
6 26-4
6 35-6
6 38-2
1-4
1 57
Appendix
449
Eecords of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
1909. I H. m.
Nov. 12 10 04-4
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Kern arks.
Dec.
14
27
28
28
3
8
9
9
9 47-3
21 19-1
1 07-8
1 14-5
8 28-3
3 250
9 17-6
9 23-8
?
15 50-6
21 23-3
21 27-4
22
9 22 040
9 i ?
23 49- 1
13 01-3
23
23
28
1910.
Jan. 10
„ 13
., 15
„ 15
.. 19
29
30
3
3
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
7
13
15
1
19 30-2
22 32-3
?
0 22-2
Feb.
22
15
15
5
3
3
9
52-9
01-1
07-7
03-7
49-2
52-2
57-9
16 50-7
14 07-5
14 09-9
1
14 52-4
17 44-2
17 48-3
Mar.
18
2
4
1
11
46-3
13-7
41-5
7 16-2
23 03-2
10 04-9
271
37-8
H. m.
10 05-7
9 49-7
1 15-6
8 340
3 33-3 !
3 34-8
9 25-8
15 59-1 |
21 310
21 32-3
22 29-0
24 030
13 02-8 !
19 36-4
22 45-1 i
19 56-5
19 27-8
0 34-6
10 58-1
15 09-3
5 11-9
3 540
10 05-8 |
16 51-9
14 14-2
14 55-5 5
17 50-9
18 47-8
2 15-2 I
4 451 i
Mm. H. m.
10 0 18
0-15
1-6
0-5
0-9
21
5-75
2-0
10
1-4
5-9
2-3
1-0
10
0-3
0-45
0-65
1-5
1-0
17-0 + '
0-75
0-25
0-2
23 04-7
01
10 08-5
0-45
1 31-2
0-25
11 440
0-5
0 07
0 28
1 24
0 31
0 40
1 01
t
0 40
1 21
1 03
0 58
0 42
0 20
1 22
1 01
2 31
0 27
17-0 +
17-0 +
0 about
2-75
1
1-4
9
0 11
0 10
0 21
0 10
0 34
0 31
1 15
Severe shock ; felt in Wellington,
New Zealand.
Slight thickening. Possibly air-
tremors.
Preceded and followed by minute
air-tremors.
i Beginning and end obscured by air-
i tremors.
'. Origin, Ladrone Islands.
55 55
? Origin, Ladrone Islands. Began
while attending to instrument.
Preceded and followed by air-
tremors.
In middle of air-tremors.
Beginning and end obscured by air-
tremors.
Beginning and end obscured by air-
tremors.
Thickening of line.
? Origin, Samoa.
Begmning and end obscured by air-
tremors.
End obscured by air-tremors.
,' Beginning obscured by air-tremors.
End obscured by air-tremors.
Beginning obscured by air-tremors.
Thickening of line
450
Transactions.
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 1<> — continued.
Date.
1910.
Mar. 29
„ 30
„ 30
„ 31
April 1
„ 4
„ 12
.. 13
„ 16
„ 18
„ 20
„ 23
„ 27
May 1
„ 1
3) 5
„ 6
„ 8
„ 10
„ 13
„ 15
„ 21
„ 22
„ 29
„ 29
„ 31
„ 31
June 1
„ 2
„ 5
„ 9
„ 9
„ 13
„ 23
„ 24
„ 29
„ 29
July 5
Commence-
ment.
11
12
Max.
H.
17
17
23
5
13
5
01-5
05-6
59-4
37-2
35-3
23-7
H.
8
8
17
24
5
14
in.
48-9
50-4
100
02-7
40-9
27-8
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
16 55-2
0 50-3 0 50-6
5 56-6 i 5 58-7
? 13 09-3
7 34-9
22 28-5
?
2 16-3
4 44-7
0
23
18
18
2
4
22
6
8
11
5
5
6
10
5
6
8
13
10
2
10
57-4
22-9
25-2
32-7
33-6
420
58-3
48-1
38-4
12-2
19-8
32-6
00-7
30-5
02-6
500
10-5
08-1
16-6
58-9
51-5
22 49-0
15 52-8
10 421
8 26-8
20 36-0
21 080
4
18
1
23
18
2
4
23
5
0
6
6
6
10
46-3
45-7
09-8
29- 1
34-4
3(5-2
49-5
07-5
10-6
21-3
01-8
09-3
22-9
12-5
32-0
04-6
13
10
13-2
20-7
11 03-8
Mm.
0-25
015
17-0 +
0-4
0-2
0-9
0-9
1-5
0-4
1-3
0-25
5-5
0-2
0-4
01
0-3
015
0-2
0-4
0-15
0-7
51
0-2
01
0-3
0-4
H.
11 08-7
170 +
14 28-9
4-2
10 460
10
10 54-4
11
10 59-3
0-9
8 58-7
1-0
9 141
0-8
9 23-3
11
20 39-4
12
20 47-3
1-5
21 12-1
7-0
21 37-7
3-5
m.
: | Sharp and sudden. Felt at Christ-
i J church.
• ? End obscured by air-tremors.
0 28
0 14
1 38-5
0 08-2 i Slight thickening.
? Pj and duration obscured by air-
tremors.
1 04-4 Preceded and followed by minute
air-tremors.
0 18-5
0 41-0
1 14-4
0 35- 1
0 11-8
?
0 41-0
0 38-0
0 20-0
0 35-4
0 12-8
0 26-4
0 22-5
1 11-2
1 26-1
0 06-1
0 06-6
1 29-2
3 000
0 06-1
0 271
0 051
0 02-5
0 39-5
0 26-9
0 14-3
1 57-5
0 53-5
1 47-2
Px and duration obscured by air-
tremors.
Thickening of line.
Preceded by continuous air-tremors.
Pi and duration obscured by air-
tremors.
Thickenings.
Pi and duration obscured by air
tremors.
Small swellings.
Minute tremors, possibly air-tremors.
Slight swellings.
? Origin, Fiji.
Minute.
Very slight.
i End obscured by quake following.
Pi obscured by preceding quake
ended 15h. 49-5m.
1 110
Appendix.
Records of Milnt Seismograph No. 10 — continued.
451
Max.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarl -.
1910.
1
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
July 15
12 08-5
12 140
10
12 21-8
12 25-3
10
10
1 19-5
„ 15
21 48-7
21 51-9
0-2
Swellings.
21 56-7
0-3
0 14-8
Preceded and followed by minute'
tremors.
,. 19
19 33-5
19 39-3
19 52-2
0-2
0-2
0 22-0
,. 24
15 27-7
15 38-9
2-0
0 31-9
.. 29
10 381
11 01-3
11 14-3
2-5
2-3
1 14-3
Aug. 5
15 38-3
15 39-5
0-6
0 05-9
„ io
20 49-6
21 08-2
0-4
0 38-3
„ 21
5 36-3
5 53-6
5 55-1
7-0
50
2 31 1
Sept, 7
7 33-9
7 51-4
7-0
1 25-0
» 9
9 00-0
9 19-8
9 28-4
5-1
30
0 55-3
„ 10
12 21-9
12 33-4
1-4
0 38-3
Oct. 7
7 05-8
7 110
8 26-5
2-4
10
0 57-0
End obscured by air-tremors.
7
11 54-4
12 07-9
2-2
0 530
„ 12
8 00-2
8 06-8
10
0 28-6
., 18
2 42-5
2 47-7
4-0
1 10-4
„ 30
7 47-5
7 53-7
2-5
0 51-7
Nov. 9
6 09-8
6 32- 1
17-5
3 03- 1
Reproduced.
„ io
12 28-4
12 40-4
2-0
0 30-6
Duration doubtful owing to
tremors.
air
.. 26
4 50-4
5 04-8
10-8
.. 26
5 49-2
4 01-6
6 38-9
20
2-1
15
3 27-7
End obscured by air-tremors.
Dec. 1
3 52-3
3 55-4
0-6
0 16-5
„ 2
3 20-2
3 26-4
1-5
0 25-9
„ 3
7 58-3
8 04-5
8 38-0
16-4
10
1 21. 7
•
„ 3
4 13-8
4 30-3
0-8
0 21-7
„ 4
11 05-4
11 10-6
11 300
170
3-5
1 45-6
„ io
9 37-4
9 47-0
10 00-2
17-5
50
11 36-3
,, 11
3 570
4 04-2
0-7
0 20-5
„ 12
23 55-9
0 21-7
0-8
0 42-3
,. 13
12 25-6
12 58-6
1-6
1 16-5
„ 14
20 54-4
21 02-7
1-5
1 07-3
» 16
14 55-3
15 26-3
15 41-8
51
3-5
2 17-6
1911.
Jan. 2
22 59-7
23 05-9
140
1 52-7
,, 3
23 46-3
0 26-6
1-4
Duration uncertain.
„ 4
. .
1 05-9
1-5
2 33-8
„ 1
2 33-2
3 05-2
10
1 13-5
„ 8
16 24-7
16 27-8
0-8
1
End obscured by air-tremors.
„ 8
9 26-8
9 320
9 41-4
2-5
1-5
0 38-2
„ io
16 37-7
16 46-2
7-4
0 550
„ 16
9 08-8
9 37-8
10
0 41-4
Feb. 7
9 42-4
9 46-5
0-8
0 12-4
452
Transactions .
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1911.
H. m.
H. ui.
Mm.
H. m.
Feb. 7
9 59-9
10 020
0-6
0 10-4
„ 17
10 14-6
10 29- 1
0-5
0 51-7
„ 17
23 23-9
23 50-8
20
0 47-6
., 21
23 460
23 49- 1
0-2
0 070
„ 25
16 12-7
16 171
0-8
0 01-5
Mar. 11
3 29-5
3 43-9
1-5
0 52-7
„ 17
9 28-2
9 30-3
10
0 07-3
„ 21
4 04-2
4 22-4
0-2
0 42-5
April 6
9 55-1
10 01-3
0-3
0 14-5
Duration uncertain owing to tremors.
,, 7
7 33-2
7 36-5
7 41-6
0-2
0-2
0 50-7
„ 8
2 16-2
2 18-4
0-5
0 09-3
Excellent lecorcl.
„ 11
13 400
13 41-9
1-5
0 240
In middle of tremors.
„ 13
10 14-7
10 18-3
11
0 19-6
Excellent record.
„ 15
4 59-9
5 050
2-5
. ,
5 13-4
1-6
0 50-5
L.W. commence 5h. 02-5m.
„ 21
2 15-5
2 20-4
2 330
1-5
10
1 17-5
„ 23
12 43-3
12 50-6
21
0 23-8
Duration uncertain.
„ 26
1 18-3
1 27-5
0-4
0 59-5
„ 27
3 03-3
3 04-8
0-2
0 06-9
May 1
12 27-4
12 32-6
0-3
0 10-3
„ 20
16 19-6
16 20-4
0-2
0 06-3
„ 23
4 33- 1
4 37-8
4 40-3
01
01
0 19-2
•Tune 3
20 39- 1
20 41-6
20 45-6
20 47-5
1-5
2-0
1-7
1-5
Commencement and duration
certain owing to tremors.
tin
„ 6
13 05-1
13 06-6
13 12-6
0-5
0-5
0 180
7
11 17-5
11 31-5
12 00-5
12 09-5
12 14-5
0-7
10
0-8
0-8
2 52
„ 10
17 00-8
17 07-6
11
1 14
„ 12
7 12-6
7 17-6
01
0 14
„ 15
14 36-4
14 46-9
14 48-7
14 52-4
15 04-5
5-5
40
30
3-8
3 08
„ 28
19 57-3
19 40-4
1-5
0 28-5
July 12
4 19-1
4 380
4 450
4 49-3
21
4-5
9-0
3 26
L.W. begin 4h. 28-2m.
„ 19
9 02-2
9 05-8
9 07-3
1-2
10
End obscured by tremors.
Aug. 6
1 260
1 28-6
0-4
0 17-5
„ 10
0 33-4
0 45-9
0-4
0 31
„ 16
22 51-2
23 18-3
23 21-7
23 23-7
23 27-4
90
6-0
6-0
6-2
4 40-5
L.W. commence 22h. 59-8m.
„ 19
2 21-8
2 24-8
0-3
0 13
Duration approximate.
„ 21
16 380
16 41-6
40
Duration obscured by tremors.
Sept. 6
1 17-9
1 20-7
0-6
1 12
„ 12
14 07-7
1-5
Beginning and end obscured
tremors.
by
Appendix.
453
Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued.
Max.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
\ Ampli-
tude.
i Duration.
Remarks.
1911.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
Sept. 15
12 25-2
12 25-4
0-6
End obscured by following quake.
,. 15
13 44-8
13 48-8
20
0 11
Oct. 5
7 38-9
7 41-3
10
. .
7 44-5
0-5
0 55-4
Shock felt at Hastings, Hawke's Bay,
New Zealand.
Nov. 2
0 56-2
1 Oil
2-1
0 33
End uncertain.
„ 16
11 45-9
11 47-9
1-7
11 49-6
1-8
0 11-3
„ 30
10 29-2
10 33-2
11-5
0 27
Duration uncertain owing to tremors.
Dec. 3
11 50-3
11 520
4-5
0 11-7
.. 13
12 01-8
12 03-2
0-9
0 01-9
Small local quake.
„ 23
21 52-4
22 090
11
End uncertain owing to tremors.
Note. — Previous to 11th May, B.P. = 14-5 sees. 1 mm. = 0-49" static tilt.
On 11th May, 1911, the new type of recording apparatus giving a time scale ap-
proximately four times as open as the old type, was installed. With this recorder the
time scale is 241 mm. to the hour.
After 11th May, B.P. = 16-5 sees. 1 mm. = 0-4" static tilt,
Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20, at Wellington, New Zea-
land. (Latitude, 41° 17' S. ; longitude, 174° 47' E. Observer, George
Hogben.)
(The instrument is placed in a special room below a house standing about 30 ft.
from the edge of a rocky cliff about 50 ft. high, situated about 250 yards from the
shore-line of Wellington Harbour.)
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration.
Remarks.
1906.
H. m.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
Jan. 10
16 16-3
, .
0-6
0 03
B.P., 19-6 sec.
„ 26
8 04-2
8 21-1
8 21-8
8 26-5
3-8
0 57
Pj. Several previous
slight shocks
, 31
15 00-4
, .
15 57-6
16 03-3
16 22-6
1-2
3 23
Feb. 1
2 29-8
, .
B.P., 19-6 sec.
2 33-9
2 34-2
2-8
0 18
3
9 55-1
8-0
0 04
.. 19
2 17-3
2 270
2 30-9
2 48-0
100
1 45
Pi-
Mar. 19
19 24-9
# u
B.P., 19-6 sec. Pi.
20 04-9
20 06-9
0-6
2 35
Probably Formosa.
.. 28
17 13-2
18 11-5
18 24-5
18 13-8
160
13 36
Pi-
April 5
22 37-8
22 46-3
22 52-8
•-
22 48-4
10
?
B.P., 18-7 sec. Pi.
mors.
•
Previous tre
454
Transactions .
Principal Records of Milne Seismograph Jo. 20 — continued.
Date.
1906.
April 14
18
Commence-
ment.
„ 19
June 1
„ 2
„ 27
July 15 |
„ 17
,. 18
„ 17
„ 18
„ 23
„ 23
„ 2(i
Sept. 7
., 14
H. in.
?
3 59-6
4 02-3
4 08-1
13 26-6
13 30- 1
14 01-9
14 10-5
14 39-7
27-3
06-1
15-1
43-6
47-8
02-3
28-1
30-6
0 39- 1
1 56-5
16 01-2
16 08-8
15 37-3
15 38-9
15 410
Max.
Max.
Ampli- Duration,
tude.
Remarks.
19 42-4
19 48-2
1 00-6
1 14-9
1 22-7
1 31-4
5 13-5
0 27-2
0 33-5
1 19-6
6 03-9
6 26-3
6 58-3
08-4
23-5
26-6
35-5
19 41-2
20 05-8
21 47-3
1
6 300
19 080
19 41-7
13 41-3
12-8
7
16
16
16
16
16
M
H. m.
4 05-4
14 11-9
7 08-4
5 07-3
5 240
4 33-7
2 00-2
2 02- 1
16 10-6
16 15-4
15 42-8
15 49 1
19 43-3
1 24-8
5 14-6
1 23-8
2 03-8
7 04-7
16 29-4
21 51 0
6 35-7
6 40-5
19 54-3
16 30-9
Mm.
7-5
90
H. m.
17 03
30
41
2-1
0-6
0-6
1-6
11
0-5
1-5
0*5
180
30
0-6
0-8
3-2
1-0
20-0 +
29
1)1
03
B.P., 19-6 sec. Pi.
Po.
p" > San Francisco earthquake.
End overlapped by beginnins; of next
quake.
Pi ?
Probably S.E. Asia.
B.P., 18-6 sec. P,.
P2-
Pi-
B.P.. 18-5 sec. Pj.
Pi-
Po.
Pi-
p3.
B.P.. 18-5 sec. Px.
Po.
Pi-
[Valparaiso earthquake; evidently
[ two or three shocks overlap.
Pi-
Po.
Pi.
? Calabria.
B.P., 18-5 sec. Pi.
P2-
Px ; obscured by tremors.
B.P., 18-5 sec. Pi.
? Obscured by tremors.
P2?
B.P., 15-9 sec.
Appendix.
455
Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. SO — continued.
Datr.
Commence
raent.
Max.
Max.
Ampli- Duration,
tude.
Remarks.
1906;
Oct. 2
„ 15
„ 21
„ 29
„ 30
Nov. 6
„ 14
„ 19
1909.
Mar. 17
April 10
May 30
June 11
Nov. 3
Dec. 9
1910.
June 1
H. m.
1 58-6
29
29
July 29
Aug. 18
Sept
31
7
04-6
151
13
2
2
1
27-9
05-1
17-6
39-8
1 52-4
19 13-7
19 18-5
19 23-6
20 06-1
20 17-2
20 36-9
22-4
47-2
17
17
18 10-6
7 27-5
7 35-2
7 48-0
8 05-3
8 14-3
23 17-4
23 27-2
5 40-9
5 49-9
21 20- 1
21 32-2
10 09-4
11 02-1
6 21-7
15 45-2
15 55-8
5 30- 1
5 40-2
16 6 34- 1
6 45-2
10 50-5
11 02-8
14 24-8
14 27-8
10 43-7
10 52-3
10 57-4
12 40-5
12 411
21 49-5
7 04-5
7 11-7
7 28-7
7 34-8
39-4
H. m.
Mm.
2 19-9
130
'/
2-5
2 19-9
130
1 53-6
1-4
19 1*9-4
10
20 20-5
2-1
17 50-6
7-8
7 53- 1
10-5
23 30-4
6-0
5 510
5-6
21 35-5
4-0
?11 16-8
11 40-4
6 26-5
0-5 1
0-5 j
20
15 58-6
4-5
5 43-7
7-5
6 49-3
14-5
11 06-9
12-5
14 29-5
90
10 58-0
30
1-0 ,
H. m.
31
56
B.P., 18-5 sec. Probably Indian
Ocean.
Pi-
Obscured by tremors.
Pi-
Pi-
Obscured by tremors.
B.P., 18-5 sec. Pj.
Pi-
Pi-
P2-
25
3 13
i Or P.T. commence 23 12-8, or even
6-0 1 1-24 about i 23 050.
2 42
,i Repeats at 23 55-1, 24 53-5, 25 19-8,
| 26 260, &c.
2 02-6 ! S. France.
0 15 Tremors before and after.
1 27
1 40
2 14
1 38
B.P., 13-5 sec. Pi.
S.W. Pacific, near New Hebrides.
/Probably S.W. Pacific, about 450
miles north of New Zealand.
Followed by tremors and repeats
I until 5 55 on 17th June.
Origin, 11° S., 172° E.
Origin, 51° S., 173F E.
Pi-
P3-
Ps.
Pi
- Local.
17 40
Almost continuous tremors.
Pi
40
P2
x3 i
P5J
Origin, 32° S., 179° W.
456
Transactions.
Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20 — continued.
Date.
Commence-
ment.
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
Duration. Remarks.
1910.
H. in.
H. m.
Mm.
H. m.
Sept, 9
9 13-4
9 19-2
Pi-
P3-
9 25-2
9 27-4
1-8
P5.
Oct. 18
2 33-8
• ■
Pt.
2 42-3
2 44-5
2-8
P3.
■
2 49-5
. ,
P5-
Nov. 9
6 07-3
6 11-4
pi"
P2
6 13-3
, .
P3 }■ Origin, 17° S., 167° E.
P4
6 15-4
. .
6 18-6
?
17-0 +
' '
• P5J
„ 26
4 46-5
4 51-2
• Pil
P3 [►Origin, 5° S., 165° E.
4 54-8
4 56- 1
1 7-0 +
P5J
Dec. 10
9 38-1
9 41-7
• p0
P3 V Probable origin, 2° N.,
146° E.
9 44-9
9 46-5
70
p5!
„ 13
12 03-2
f
Pi.
12 37-5
12 49-8
6-3
Probably P5 or P3.
„ 16
14 56-2
15 090
Pi-
P3.
15 25-3
15 27-5
15-3
-
PS-
1911.
Jan. 2
22 53-4
22 59-2
23 01-4
„ 3
2 24-7
2 59-7
3 320
3 48-5
4 27-3
>, 3
23 51-6
24 14-5
24 28-2
24 42-7
24 45-2
„ 9
17 43-0
Note. — 1 mm. of amplitude = 0-70" of tilt (static).
23
04-1
10
April 17
21
.May 4
12-3 )
16 35-9
16 37-1
16 38-6
23 080
23 10-9
23 12 6
23 13-8
2 16-2
2 17-4
2 19-2
2 20-5
14 01-4
14 04-4
14 09-7
23 590
24 22-4
24 46-7
17 43-5
B.P., 18-3 sec.
0 41 Distance, about 2,100 km.
16
23
14
24
40-8
14-4
22-5
12-8
28-9
30
1-0
1 02
0 24
0 10 about
0 22 about
0 21
1 02
Pi
P2?
P3 ? [►Turkestan.
P4?
J
Local. Principal shock, 2-3 sec,
Rossi-Ford, V.
fp0
J P2 i Distance, about 1,200 km.
I P3 ( B.P., 20-7 sec.
IPE !
fPi
j p
7 o2 r Distance, about 1,500 km.
I1
p2 > Distance, about 1,150 km.
P5J
Distance, about 2,100 km.
p1 I Distance, about 8,000 km.
I p3 j B.P., 19-5 sec.
Note. — 1 mm. of amplitude — 0-70" of tilt (static).
Appendix.
Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20 — continued.
457
Date.
Commence-'
ment.
1911.
June 7
10
16
21
July 12
Aug. 16
Oct.
17
H. m.
11 27-8
11 49-8
11 53-7
12 03-9
16 59- 1
17 04- 1
14 30-2
14 32-4
14 47-9
16 33-9
16 43-6
4 18-6
4 49-2
22 51-4
23 000
23 12-8
23 15-7
23 19-5
7 36-7
9 41-9
Max.
Max.
Ampli-
tude.
H. m.
Mm.
- - 1
11 56-2
1
130 J-
• • 1:
J
1-2 )
17 001
17 05-2
0-8 /
14 49-3
8-0 J
16 44-9
2-5
4 51-3
8-0
23 16-7
7-0
23 22-2
100
7 37-5
7 390
9 46-4
2-0
Duration.
H. m.
2 30
I
Remarks.
B.P., 18-4 sec. Pi.
P4.
P5. Long waves.
Origin,
Mexico.
■ Times
P8. Probably transverse | uncer-
waves. J tain.
0 07 | ? Local.
3 07
0 44
1 08
r
j-3 18 «j
J I
0 36 I
Beginning obscured by tremors.
B.P., 17-5 sec. Pj.
P5-
B.P., 170 sec. Px.
P2-
P3- •
P4.
P5-
B.P., 12-5 sec. Origin, about 200-
250 miles east of Wellington.
? Origin, about 550 miles from Wel-
lington.
PROCEEDINGS.
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911
PART I
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
IsscED 30th August, 1911
Wellington. IX
JOHN MAOKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Wesley and Son, -28 Essex Street, Strand. London W.C,
' C O N T E NTS
PROCEEDINGS.
Wellington Philosophical Society : Meetings, 10th May. 18th May. 7th June,
12th July ; Report of Astronomical Section.
Auckland Institute : Meeting. 12th June.
Manawatu Philosophical Society : Meetings. 16th March, 20th April, 6th
June.
Otago Institute : Meetings. 2nd May, 6th June, 4th July ; Technological
Section— Meetings, 16th May. 20th June.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : Meetings. 3rd May, 7th June,
12th July.
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute : Meetings. 2nd June, 30th June.
PAPERS.
1. Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation.
By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S.
2. Note on Helichrysum fasciculatum Buchanan. Bv T. F. Cheeseman,
F.L.S.
3. Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand. By G. Archey.
4. Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands. By Edgar R.
Waite. F.L.S.
5. The Actio)i of Alkyl Iodides on Copper-oxide. By H. G. Denham,
M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D.
6. The Nature of Gamma Rays. By Professor T. H. Laby and P. W.
Burbidge, B.Sc.
ABSTRACTS.
1. Die Gattung Toivnsonia Cheesem. — R. Schlechter.
2. Some Constants of Mutton-bird Oil and Fat. — L. Hewgill Smith.
3. An Attempt to introduce Olearia semidentata into the British Isles. —
A. A. Dorrien -Smith.
4. New Zealand Plants. — A. A. D^rrien-Smith.
5. Remarkable Instances of Plant-dispersion. — G. Henslow.
6. Olearias in Ireland. — C. F. Ball.
7. Hybrid Veronicas. — Editor of Gardeneri Chronicle.
1*— Froc. pt. i.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911.
PART I.
P E OGEE J ) INGS
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
First Meeting : 10th May, 1911.
An ordinary meeting of the society was held on Wednesday, 10th May,
1911, in the Dominion Museum.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about fifty present.
New Members. — Mr. L. Birks, B.Sc. Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. (transfer from
Auckland Institute), Mr. F. J. Carter, M.A., Mr. J. W. Salmond, M.A.,
Mr. W. J. Anderson, M.A.. LL.D.. and Mr. W. H. Morton, M.Inst.C.E.
Eugenics Education Society. — Reference was made by Professor Kirk
and the President to the meeting called for 11th May, to form an Eugenics
Education Society in Wellington.
Presidential Address. — " The Value of Natural-history Studies." By
G. V. Hudson, F.E.S.
Abstract.
The lecturer used the term " natural history " to mean the study of nature in the
broadest sense, the object being the extension of human knowledge and happiness apart
entirely from commercial and economic interests, and he stated that the growing tend-
ency to judge every sphere of action on its commercial value was distasteful to him.
Although children often take a very keen interest in natural objects, the majority of
adults are absolutely indifferent to the wonders and beauties around them. This loss
of interest he attributed to the influences, both at home and at school, directing the atten-
tion of children to other studies which are commonly supposed to enable them to get on
in life — though, as Herbert Spencer long ago pointed out, a knowledge of the laws of
life is more important than any other knowledge whatever. Although to many persons
a naturalist is a dreamer who is more or less incompetent to deal with the problems of
life, yet the qualifications required for a successful naturalist, such as keenness of observa-
tion, accuracy, continuity of purpose, &c, are precisely those most required in business,
and many well-known naturalists have been also successful business men. The study
of natural phenomena exercises the powers of observation and also the memory, while
many of the subjects in the school curriculum exercise the memory only. Natural
history also acts as an antidote to the dullness and ennui that is apt to overcloud middle
life when the brightness and originality of childhood have departed, and, further, it
leads the student to the consideration of the deepest questions of philosophy — questions
bordering on religion, which are perhaps unwisely excluded from the scope of the
Institute.
Examples of the ignorance of natural phenomena displayed by persons supposed
to be well educated were given, and it was pointed out that mistakes in such matters
are usually thought little of, while a man who makes a slight slip in spelling or grammar
is branded as an ignoramus.
6 Proceedings.
If the conclusion of many naturalists that acquired characters are not inherited is
correct, it follows that the labour expended on education is for each generation only ; and,
though this may be a disappointing doctrine to those who have believed that the race
could be improved by the inherited effects of education, there is a brighter side to the
question, for if the absence of men of commanding personality at the present time is
due to the repression of individuality during early years, we may reasonably anticipate
that with improved and more enlightened methods of education and a more suitable
environment men of commanding personality will again arise. Some signs of the growing
dissatisfaction with many of the present educational methods, and of greater attention
being paid to natural history, were noted with approval, and in connection therewith
the lecturer made the following suggestions : —
(1.) That young members might be induced to join the society as associates, and on
payment of a small fee be entitled to all the privileges of membership except the annual
volume.
(2.) That further efforts should be made to secure closer and more united action
between the various branches of the Institute.
(3.) That special efforts should be made to place the New Zealand Institute more
on the same status as the Linnean, Geological, and other learned societies, so that its
members might be termed " Fellows of the New Zealand Institute."
(4.) That in addition to its present functions the New Zealand Institute might with
advantage promote the objects pursued by the Sel borne Society of the United Kingdom,
such as the preservation of such wild animals as are harmless, beautiful, and rare, the
protection of places and objects of natural beauty or antiquarian interest, &c.
(5.) The formation of sections for special subjects, and the closer co-operation of the
similar sections of the different branches of the Institute.
Papers.— 1. " Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous
Vegetation." By B. C. Aston, F.I.C.. F.C.S. (See p. 19.)
2. ' Notes on Nests, Life-history, and Habits of Migas distinctus."
By J. B. Gatenby.
Astronomical Section.- — The following report of the Astronomical Sec-
tion was presented : —
Report.
The Astronomical Section of the Wellington Philosophical Society was formally
constituted at a special meeting held in the Museum on the 22nd August, 1910.
At present the section consists of thirty-two members, with the following officers :
President and Treasurer, Mr. C. P. Powles ; Director and Curator of Instruments, Rev.
Dr. Kennedy ; Council, Professor D. K. Picken, Dr. C. M. Hector, and Messrs. C. E.
Adams, G. Hog ben, W. S. La Trobe, and A. C. Gifford (Secretary).
On the 29th September the Rev. Dr. Kennedy gave a popular lecture on astronomy,
in aid of the Observatory Fund, which resulted in a net profit of £18 6s. In this con-
nection we must thank the City Council for kiudly granting us the free use of the Concert
Chamber in the Town Hall.
The following is a list of the papers read and lectures delivered at the ordinary
meetings of the section : —
October 11. — Presidential Address on Astronomy. — Mr. C. P. Powles.
November 15. — The Pressure of Light. — Professor T. H. Labj'.
February 21. — The Mechanism of Astronomical Instruments. — -Mr. W. S.
La Trobe.
April 11. — Spherical Geometry and Trigonometry. — Professor D. K. Picken.
It is proposed to start an astronomical library in connection with the section. We
must thank Dr. C. M. Hector for astronomical catalogues presented for this purpose,
and Mr. J. Grigg, F.E.A.S., for a photo of Hailey's Comet, 1910, taken by himself at the
Observatory, Thames.
A number of members have sent to the Secretary lists of the astronomical worki?
in their private libraries, which may be of great use to members when searching for
information on particular points.
The solar eclipse : The Council endeavoured to organize a party to co-operate
with the Australian Eclipse Expedition. Unfortunately, owing to the short time avail-
able for making arrangements, the long time the expedition would take, and the con-
siderable expense involved, they were unsuccessful in this attempt.
Wellington Philosophical Society. 7
The section is very deeply indebted to Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of Observatories,
tor his kindness in placing at our disposal a fine 5 in. Cooke telescope, and tor granting
the use of a portion of the Time Observatory site at Kelburne for storing, and observing
with, the same. The telescope has been moved to Kelburne, and is now available for
the use of members, but we hope that it will be much more conveniently so before very
long. Nearly live months ago the Council ordered from England an equatorial mounting
for it. This should very soon arrive in Wellington, so immediate steps must be taken
to provide for the housing of the instrument.
The principal object of the section is to promote and encourage in every possible
way the study of astronomy. As one of the chief means to that end the section
is striving to secure the speedy establishment in or near Wellington of a fully equipped
astronomical observatory, it is felt that progress in this direction will be slow unless
public interest in astronomy can be aroused. It is proposed, therefore, as soon as the
telescope is mounted and housed, to give those who desire it an opportunity of seeing
some of the wonders of the heavens.
Unfortunately, the section as constituted has no direr! and permanent source of
revenue. Membership of the Philosophical Society carries with it the right of member-
ship of the section without any additional subscription. The section started with
uothing, and although there is now £34 12s. in the savings-bank it is in urgent need of
further funds. The equatorial mounting ordered from England is catalogued at £33
without some extras that were found essential, and, of course, the mounting will be
useless unless the telescope is adequately housed. Subscriptions for this purpose would
be very welcome now. When the section was constituted Dr. C. M. Hector opened
the Observatorj' Fund with a donation of £10. This was followed by donations from
Miss Helycr, and Messrs. J. P. Firth, W. H. Carter, jun., J. Thompson, and A. C. Gifford
The total subscriptions up to the present amount to £16 6s., which with the £18 6s.,
the net proceeds of Dr. Kennedy's lecture, makes up the £34 12s. already referred to.
The question of the best way to house the telescope was discussed at the last meeting
of the section, and is at present a matter for the serious consideration of the Council.
Several interesting papers are promised for the forthcoming meetings, so, with the
increased interest that will doubtless be aroused by the facilities for observation that
will soon be provided, the section can look forward with confidence to a successful
season's work.
A. C. Gifford, Hon. Secretary.
Special Meeting : 18th May, 1911.
A special meeting of the society was held on Thursday, 18th May, 1911,
at Victoria College.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about seventy present.
Lecture. — Professor T. H. Laby delivered an interesting lecture on the
principles of gyroscopic motion, and showed a number of experiments with
gyroscopes and a model of the Brennan mono -rail car, which had been
built in the physics laboratory.
All the experiments were most successful, and when the requisite speed had been
attained by the gyroscopes of the car it was run over a wire stretched across the room,
and maintained its equilibrium in spite of tiltings and repeated shakings of the wire.
Mr. G. Hogben, Inspector- General of Schools, moved a vote of thanks to the lecturer,
and remarked on the interesting manner in which Professor Laby had explained one of
the newest developments of mechanics.
Mr. A. L. Beattie, Chief Mechanical Engineer to the Railway Department, seconded
the motion, and said that as a railway engineer of forty-five years standing he had been
particularly interested in the professor's exposition.
The motion was carried with ereat heartiness.
8 Proceedings.
Second Meeting : 7th June, 1911.
The second ordinary meeting of the society was held on Wednesday.
7th June, 1911, in the Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about eighty present.
New Members. — Mr. J. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc, Mr. W. E. Spencer,
M.A., M.Sc, Mr. G. Stuart Thomson, and Mr. J. Allan Thomson, B.Sc.
The President, referring to Kapiti Island, announced that the society
would make strong representations to the Government to reserve the whole
island for Native fauna and flora.
Papers. — 1. " Further Note on Migas distinctus." By J. B. Gatenby.
2. " Othello." By H. L. James, B.A.
Mr. James delivered an interesting address on Othello, and during the evening
Mrs. B. M. Wilson sang Desdemona's song to the original music.
3. " Maori Curiosities." By Dr. A. K. Newman.
Dr. Newman described and exhibited Maori curiosities collected recently.
4. " The Nature of Gamma Rays." By Professor T. H. Laby and
P. W. Burbidge, B.Sc. (See p. 30.)
Third Meeting : 12th July, 1911.
The third ordinary meeting of the society was held on Wednesday,
12th July, 1911, in the Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about forty present.
New Member. — Professor Garrow.
Exhibits. — 1. Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of the Museum, exhibited some
recent acquisitions to the Museum, including two collections of Lepidoptera,
one from Brisbane in exchange for New Zealand specimens, and the other
from Aru Island on the south-west coast of New Guinea.
2. On behalf of Professor Laby, who was unable to attend, Mr. P. W.
Burbidge, B.Sc, exhibited and explained the action of a vibration galvano-
meter.
Address. — Mr. R. W. Holmes, Engineer-in-Chief, Public Works Depart-
ment, delivered an interesting address on the " Federal Capital Territory,"
and illustrated his remarks by means of numerous plans — contour, meteoro-
logical, geological, &c. — -panoramic views, and a large relief model of the
locality in which Australia's capital city is to be built.
Paper. — Professor T. H. Easterfield read a paper on the " Higher Fatty
Acids," and described experiments made by himself and Miss C. M. Taylor ;
and exhibited and described the apparatus used.
A ucklan d Inst it uie.
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
First Meeting : 12th June, 1911.
Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair.
New Members.— Messrs. A. W. Clark, F. N. R. Downard, T. Ellison,
Edwin Hall, J. W. Hall, R. D. Gunson, Dr. R. H. Makgill, Dr. Milsom, Dr.
Rossiter, Rev. D. D. Scott, Mrs. R. H. Shakespear, J. J. Walklate, and
S. Walker.
The President delivered the anniversary address, taking as his subject
'" Free Public Libraries and Museums."
He made a reference to the public libraries of ancient times, and to the people
wtio possessed them. Some remarks were given on the libraries, of the present times.
Consideration was given to the best methods of maintaining libraries, and the
dangers were described that are likely to follow upon the injudicious admission of inferior
books. He held that the main purpose of a public library should be educational.
Museums were regarded as institutions supplementary to public libraries. A reference
was made to several well-known public museums, and an outline was given of what a
museum may be.
10 Proceedings.
MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
First Meeting : 16th March. 1911.
Captain Hewitt, R.N., in the. chair.
Lecture. — " Ramblings and a little Philosophy." By H. B. Drew.
The lecturer gave interesting reminiscences of a two-years cycling tour on th<-
(Jontinent of Europe and in the Holy Land, and illustrated them by lantern-slides
from sketches and photographs by Mr. G. E. Woolley. He took his hearers — mostly by
by-ways — through parts of Italy, France, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, and Germany,
as well as Jerusalem and its neighbourhood, giving his impressions of the cultivation
of the land and the condition of the peasantry in the different countries. He was much
struck, he said, by the great cordiality with which he and his companions were received
throughout their travels, especially in Austria and Germany, and by the high opinion
apparently everywhere entertained of England and English honour.
Second Meeting : 20th April. 1911.
Mr. J. E. Vernon, M.A., in the chair.
Papers. — 1. " The Anatomical Structures of the New Zealand Pipe-
raceae." By Miss A. F. Ironsides, M.A.
This paper gives in full detail the results of an examination of the anatomical
structure of the adult plant and seedling of the New Zealand representatives of the
Piperaceae, and discusses the bearing of the facts on the relationships of the order and
on the phylogeny of the Angiosperms generally.
2. " Some New Zealand Moths." By the Rev. A. Doull, M.A.
Illustrated by a collection of about forty species showing curious individual varia-
tions, including Bityea defigurata, found only at Palmerston North, in the North Island.
3. " Moose and Wapiti in New Zealand." By R. Henry.
The writer stated that these animals, which had been brought from Canada, where
they had abundance of grain and sunshine, enabling them in the summer to put on
sufficient fat to carry them through the winter, while the weaklings were carried off by
the wolves, had been turned out in a valley in the Sounds, where there was neither grass
nor sunshine, and almost perpetual rain, with sides so steep that it was hardly possible
for them to get out of it.
4. " Pike as Health Officers." By R. Henry.
Showing by an illustration in the Sporting and Dramatic News, and by statistic*
from English papers, that pike by structure and habit are adapted for the capture of
sickly fish only, and are therefore most useful as health officers, and that (he same func-
tion is discharged in New Zealand by eels, and probably also by shags.
Manawatu Philosophical Society. 11
Third Meeting : 6th June, 1911.
Mr. W. S. Durward in the chair.
M.i. Justice Chapman gave a very interesting lecture on the '"Alpine
Flora ol New Zealand.'' He began by denning " alpine flora " as that
which prevailed above the forest-line, but pointed out that the altitude of this
line, here as elsewhere, gradually decreased from the Equator towards
the Poles, sinking from 4,000 ft. in the North Island and Nelson to the sea-
level in the Campbell Islands. There was great similarity in the alpine
flora all over the world ; the chief distinction of the New Zealand variety
was that it was almost entirely white, especially in the higher regions. This
flora was of great beauty, and was to be found in great profusion in the
higher parts of the Tararua and Kuahine Ranges and on Ruapehu, as well
as in the larger alpine areas of the South Island. The existence of this
alpine flora in conjunction with the almost tropical forest, rendered it
probable that New Zealand had at one time been connected with a large
continent extending as far as New Guinea, and at another time with the
Antarctic. He warmly recommended the study of the New Zealand alpine
flora to all who desired healthful recreation, as the regions where the
alpine flora prevailed were now easily accessible from all parts of the
Dominion.
At the conclusion of the lecture a cordial vote of thanks was moved by
Mr. Wilson, and seconded by Mr. Vernon.
12 Proceedings.
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
First Meeting} : 2nd May, 1911.
The President, Mr. A. Bathgate, in the chair.
Technological Section. — The President announced that the newly formed
Dunedin Technological Society had affiliated itself with the Otago Institute,
members of the society becoming full members of the Institute, with the
right to form a Technological Branch with control of its own lectures and
proceedings, and with power to select a chairman and officers to manage
the same.
New Members.- — Professor (Miss) W. E. Boys-Smith, Mrs. Montgomery
Spencer, Messrs. J. N. Lawson, C. Parr, H. D. Skinner, D. L. Poppelwell,
A. Walker, and R. W. Rutherford.
The following sixty-five members of the Technological Society were also
elected members : Dr. W. Newlands, Messrs. E. W. Ackland, L. 0. Beal.
D. E. Booth, H. Brasch, H. C. Brent, F. R. Brown, Ross Burt, W. E. Chis-
holm. B. B. Couston, E. C. Creagh, R. E. Davidson, W. R. Davidson, G. W.
Davies, C. Duke, G. C. Edgar, K. Edge, M. Elliot, G. Ferguson, P. Findlay,
A. C. Forsyth, H. V. Fulton, Joseph Fulton, C. Frye, G. W. Gough, H. J.
Gould, M. C. Henderson, G. T. V. Hobart, B. B. Hooper, J. T. Hungerford,
S. H. Howrth, R. C. Jones, A. Lambie, G. A. Lee, F. J. Lough, J. Lvthgoe,
W. L. McEvoy, D. McKenzie, H. McRae, W. P. Macdougall, jun.,"' Angus
Marshall, Watson Munro, Alex. Neil, T. R. Overton, R. V. Parker, T. A. C.
Preston, T. C. Ross, J. H. Scott, F. M. Shortt, D. Sherr.fE, George Simpson,
George Simpson, jun., F. W. Skelsey, J. A. Smith, R. E. Stark, J. Stark,
James Stark, H. Symes, S. Symington, R. S. Thompson. R. N. Vanes, R. D.
Veitch, T. S. Wansbrough, P. Y. Wales, and E. W. Walden.
Address. — Mr. Bathgate then delivered his presidential address, entitled
" Some Neglected Aspects of Afforestation."
Abstract.
The lecturer dealt with some of the more neglected aspects of afforestation, and
pointed out that in addition to the primary object — i.e., the production of timber — the
other benefits of afforestation were chiefly two — -(1) climatic, and (2) conservancy of the
water-supply. The climatic effects were increased rainfall and shelter. The connection
between forests and the rainfall was fully considered, and in opposition to the opinions
of many modern writers it was urged that the presence of forests on mountain-slopes
probably favoured precipitation from clouds that would otherwise pass over causing
only mists, and that even where they do not increase the actual rainfall, forests affect
the distribution of rainfall. The climate of Central Otago and its possible alteration
by afforestation was fully considered under this head. The beneficial effects of forests
in affording shelter and equalizing the temperature were described at some length, and
special attention was drawn to the beneficial effects of tree-planting in Jutland. The
lecturer then dealt with the effects of forests in minimizing floods and in retaining the
Olago Institute. 13
moisture of the soil, and numerous examples were given from different countries of the
effects of deforestation in drying up springs and producing desert conditions. The
appointment of a thoroughly trained scientific forester in New Zealand to control all
existing natural forests and to direct the formation of artificial forests was strongly
urged, and it was argued that though afforestation on a more extensive scale than at
present would lead to additional temporary expenditure, it was a duty that we owed
to our descendants, and that eventually it would yield handsome profit.
At the close of the address several members spoke instancing cases of deforestation
in various parts of Otago, and the following resolution was moved by Mr. J. N. Lawson,
and carried unanimously : " That this Institute respectfully urge upon the Government
the urgent necessity for a more vigorous prosecution of the work of afforestation through-
out the Dominion, and that, notwithstanding its vast importance, the production of
limber should not be the sole object of the forestry operations, but climatic consider-
ations and the conservation of water should also be dealt with ; and this Institute would
also further urge upon the Government the necessity for appointing without delay a
scientifically trained Chief Forester to direct and control the Department."
Second Meeting : 6th June, 1911.
Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair.
Neiv Members. — Miss Edith Howes, of Gore, author of " The Sun's
Babies," was elected an honorary member. Dr. P. D. Cameron, Dr. A. J.
Hall, Captain S. G. Sandle, and Messrs. W. D. R. McCurdie, F. A. Simpson,
Nelson Jones, F. Oakden, C. H. Marriott, C. H. N. Thomhnson, K. A. Mc-
Donald, F. R. Shepherd, W. J. Mitchell, A. Mackie, W. J. Scoullar, W. J.
Crawford. G. J. Orchiston. and H. C. Auty were elected members.
Papers.- — 1. " On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand."
By G. B. LongstafT, M.A.. M.D.. F.E.S. ; communicated bv Mr. G. W.
Howes. F.E.S.
2. " Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae."
By L. B. Prout ; communicated by Mi. G. W. Howes, F.E.S.
3. " New Lepidoptera.'" By L. B. Prout ; communicated by Mr. G. W.
Howes, F.E.S.
t
4. " Life-history of Argyrophenga antipodum." By G. W. Howes.
F.E.S.
5. " The Food-value of Oysters." By Professor J. Malcolm, M.D.
The author stated that he had recently been investigating some of the food-products
of New Zealand, and particularly oysters. One of the great principles of diatetics was
that the food should supply a sufficient amount of combustible matter in the body to
supply heat and energy. He referred to the three divisions of foodstuffs — fat, protein,
and carbohydrates— and to the quantitative and qualitative ways of looking at food.
New Zealand oysters contained from 6 to 12 per cent, of protein, and also a fair pro-
portion of fat and carbohydrates, so that they had all the constituents of diet. There
was also their value as an appetizer. He instituted a comparison between Stewart
Island and American oysters, and also between the nutritive value of oysters and other
common foods. A dozen of oysters equalled an ordinary hen's egg. He predicted
that oyster-culture, as in France, would yet be a very large industry in New Zealand.
Professor Boys-Smith spoke at some length on the cooking of oysters, and stated
that the less all protein food was cooked the better, provided it was made palatable.
Carbohydrates were made more digestible by cooking. Oysters should be eaten as fat-
as possible raw. She knew of only one good recipe for cooking oysters.
14 Proceedings.
6. " The Maoris of the West. Coast of the South Island." By H. D.
Skinner.
The author explained that his paper dealt with a very small part of the subject.
He mentioned first the passes to the West Coast, then some of the preparations the
Maoris made for travelling across these passes, and finally indicated the discoverer of
the first pass. All the greenstone we knew of in New Zealand came from one or two
•.iver-beds on the West Coast, and must have been brought across these passes. Some
idea of the amount carried over might be gathered from the fact that from Murdering
Beach alone about 3 cwt. of worked greenstone had been removed. The author 'made
use of a length}' manuscript containing the only record of the history, customs, and
mythology of the Maori tribe now on the verge of extinction on the West Coast. After
referring to the various passes of the Southern Alps and their significance to the Maoris,
he gave a vivid description of the journeys which the Natives used to make across the
.Alps, and concluded with the story of Raurika, the mad woman who, about the year
] 700, discovered Browning's Pass, and was the first to find a way across the great barrier.
7. " The Mammalian Heart : the Nature of its Beat, and Some Striking
Variations in Rhythm recently discovered^' By Dr. Stuart Moore.
Commencing with a few simple points about the anatomy of the heart, the writer
went on to discuss the two theories of the causes of its action and to describe some
remarkable recorded irregularities, and made the subject clear by the use of the black-
board and of several interesting diagrams shown through a magic-lantern. Incidentally,
some insight was given into the remarkably ingenious methods by which physiologists
can detect, record, and interpret the most delicate variations in the action of the heart.
Third Meeting : 4th July, 1911.
The President, Mr. A. Bathgate, in the chair.
There was a large attendance, over two hundred members and friends
being present.
Address. — Mr. R. Speight, M.A., F.G.S., of Christchurch, gave an in-
teresting illustrated address on " Remote and Unknown Canterbury."
Abstract.
The address dealt chiefly with a part of Canterbury which is little known to the
general public, and lies at the head of the Rakaia, Ash burton, and Rangitata Rivers.
The lecturer first of all gave a brief account of the geographical features of the area,
ind referred to the work of exploration carried on by Haast, Potts, and Whitcombe,
as well as to the connection of Dr. Sinclair and Samuel Butler with its early history.
Some account was given of the geological structure of the district and the evolution of
the chief landscape-features. The lecturer drew attention to the fact that the Southern
Alps in their present form are not a mountain -range of the alpine type, but rather a
dissected peneplain of which the present mountain -tops are a remnant. The dissection
has been brought about first of all by stream-action and then by glaciation. The
effect of the latter was dealt with at greater length, and the address concluded with a
description of the present glaciers at the head of the Rakaia and the adjacent river-
valleys, which probably afford the finest alpine scenery in New Zealand with the excep-
tion of that in the Mount Cook district — a feature which is all the more remarkable
seeing that the highest peaks in that part of the main range do not reach the height of
y,000 ft. Even this comparatively moderate elevation seems competent to deprive the
wet westerly winds of by far the greater portion of the moisture they carry.
The lecture was illustrated by an extensive series of lantern-slides, giving a fine
series of views of the country dealt with, and at its close a hearty vote of thanks was
KTOorded to the lecturer on the motion of the chairman.
Otago Institute. 15
TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.
Officers.- — The following have been elected the executive of the section r
Chairman— Mr. E. E. Stark : Vice-Chairman— Mr. M. Elliot and Mr. F. W.
Furkert ;. Hon. Secretaries — Messrs. H. Brasch and E. C. Creagh ; Com-
mittee— Professor J. Park. Messrs. E. W. Ackland, J. Lythgoe. F. W. Payne,
and J. H. Scott.
First Meeting : 16th May, 1911.
Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.
Mr. Stark, chairman of the section, delivered an interesting address on
" Alternating Currents of High Frequency," illustrated by many effective
experiments. The attendance was very satisfactory for the initial meeting
of the section, there being over seventy members present.
Secont> Meeting : 20th June, 1911.
Present— Mr. E. E. Stark (in the chair) and a large number of members.
Address. — Mr. Frank Oakden gave a. long and interesting address on
" Portland Cement." The evening was found to be too short to permit
of the address being brought to a close, and it was unanimously decided to
continue the lecture and the discussion on it on the following Tuesday (27th
June). Another large audience met on the latter date and heard the con-
clusion of the address.
The address dealt fully with the whole subject under the following heads : (1) His-
torical outline, dealing with methods of manufacture from earlier times up to the present
day ; (2) physical tests ; (3) theories of hardening, showing the existing diversity oi
opinion between the highest authorities. [A full report was published in the Otago
Daily Times of the 29th June, 1911.]
lrj Frooeedtwgs.
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
First Meeting : 3rd May, 1911.
Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and eighty others.
New Members.— Messrs. L. S. Jennings. W. Brock. H. R. Hogg, and
-1. Caughley.
A large number of donations were received and laid on the table.
Anton Dohrn Fund. — A letter was received from Dr. Benham, enclosing
< irculars and asking for subscriptions to the Anton Dohrn Fund. Dr.
Chilton explained the reason for making the appeal, and hoped members
would subscribe to such a worthy object.
Address. — Mr. R. M. Laing, the retiring President, then delivered his
ex-presidential address on " A Study in Multiple Personality."
The lecturer pointed out that this address was really a continuation and develop-
ment along specialized lines of an address previously given by himself to the Institute
on the subject of hypnotism.
The investigation into the phenomena of multiple personality has now reached a
highly technical stage. Three different types of theory have been put forward to explain
these aberrations of personality and allied phenomena. These three types may be
roughly classified as follows : (a.) The " unconscious cerebration " theory. This has
been put forward in different forms by W. B. Carpenter, A. H. Pierce, and Munsterberg.
According to it the automatic speech and writing of a secondary personality were no
more accompanied by intelligence than the song of a gramophone. The lecturer con-
sidered this theory was quite insufficient to account for the phenomena witnessed in
the more remarkable cases of alternation of personality, such as shown by Miss
Beauchamp, the Rev. Thomas Hanna, and Ansell Bourne. (6.) The second type of
hypothesis may be termed the " stratification " theory. According to it there underlies
the normal consciousness one or more deeper strata of consciousness often possessed of
supernormal powers. Forms of this theory may be found in the "transcendental"
consciousness of Du Prel, in the " subliminal " consciousness of Myers, and the
" subjective " consciousness of various popular American writers, such as Hudson.
This type of theory appeared to the lecturer to be largely unsubstantiated, (c.) The
" dissociation " theory. According to this theory certain complexes are dissociated by
amnesia from the normal consciousness and lead to " automatonisms," or, when very
fully developed, sometimes assume control of the bodily organism and more or less
permanently play the role of the normal consciousness. This theory appeared to the
lecturer to provide a firm foothold for the study of multiple personality and many related
phenomena. Dissociation, indeed, is exhibited in sleep, dreams, hypnosis, sensory
and motor automatonisms, such as crystal visions, auditory and visual hallucinations,
automatic speech and writing, the phenomena of revivals, conversion, demoniacal pos-
s ssion, spirit-control, and many cases of insanity. Thus a naturalistic explanation was
obtained of many phenomena usually termed occult. However, after full scope had been
given to explanation by dissociation, there still remained a residuum of unexplained
phenomena, which might for the present at least be regarded as " supernormal."
The body of the address consisted of a detailed description of the above phenomena
as exhibited by Miss Christine Beauchamp and described by Dr. Morton Prince. With
infinite patience Dr. Morton Prince was able to synthesize the disintegrated memories
of Miss Beauchamp and restore her to normal health. Under ordinary circumstances
her neurasthenic and psychasthenic condition would inevitably lead to her confinement
in a mental hospital, but Dr. Prince by his close investigation of the case and his treat -
inent of it by therapeutic suggestion was able to control the various personalities
developed and bring out renewed mental equilibrium.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 17
Second Meeting : 7th June. 1911.
Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and nearly one hundred
others, including the officers of the s.s. "Terra Nova," and Captain
Bo lions of the G.s.s. " Hinemoa."
New Members.— -Messrs. W. \V. Garton, Richard Finch, T. Fletcher
G. D. Hansford, W. D. Kirkpatrick, B. Seth Smith. C. Foweraker. I. E.
Newton, M.A., G. Whitehead, B.A.. H. D. Acland.
Address.—" The Natural History of Whales." By D. G. Lillie. B.A.,
Biologist to the Antarctic Expedition.
The lecturer first gave a brief outline of the phylogenetic development of the various
orders of the mammalia, with special reference to the whales, and detailed the chief
differences between these animals and fishes. He showed the relationship between the
whales and the mammals most closely connected with them, specially mentioning the
modification of the various organs to suit a marine environment. He noted that the
grooves which appear in the skin of the rorquals probably function in respiration. The
lecturer concluded with an account of the classification of whales and of their habits.
The address was illustrated with an extensive and excellent series of drawings.
In moving a hearty vote of thanks to the lecturer Mr. Edgar H. Waite referred to
the original work which had already been done by Mr. Lillie in connection with whales,
a subject of investigation of the greatest difficulty.
in acknowledging the vote of thanks, Mr. Lillie gave some brief indications as to
how the different species of whales could be determined by any one seeing them from
the deck of a ship, but said that it was scry difficult indeed to come to a correct conclu-
sion without long experience.
Third Meeting : 12th July, 1911.
Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and forty others.
Neiv Members. — Messrs. W. Goss, J. Deans, and W. C. Colee.
Address. — " Recent Advances in Radioactivity." By D. C. H. Florance,
M.A., M.Sc.
The lecturer gave a very clear and interesting account of the methods adopted
during the last two years for investigating the phenomena of radioactivity, and illus-
trated his remarks with exhibits and experiments. He paid special attention to the
series of products derived from uranium, and the behaviour of atoms under the influence
of the a, ,3, and y rays. At the close he was accorded a very hearty vote of thanks.
Papers. — 1. "The Action of Alkyl Iodides on Copper - oxide." Bv
H. G. Denham, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D. (See page 29.)
2. " Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand." By G.
Archey ; communicated by Dr. Chilton. (See page 25.)
3. " Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands." Bv Edgar
R. Waite, F.L.S. (See page 28.)
Inset— Proc. pt. i.
\R Proceedings.
HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
First Meeting : 2nd June. 1911.
The President, Mr. H. Hill. B.A., F.G.S., in the chair.
New Member. — Mr. Alexander.
Address. — The President delivered his presidential address on 'Indi-
vidualism versus Collective Industrialism."
Mr. Hill first referred to the advantage of being a member of the Institute, and
urged the desirability of keeping records of early settlement, of the natural characters
of the country, of original and introduced flora and fauna, of climate, of temperature,
of rainfall, of floods, &c.
The address dealt with the economic relations between workers and masters and
the State. The comparison between the State and a person was made with respect
to the various changes taking place as time passed, and deductions were made therefrom.
Some scenes in industrial centres in England which were visited by the lecturer were
described, and the evil effects of specialization were noted. The treatment of the
'" human machine " was discussed, and the question raised why the employer did not
treat the worker as well as the inanimate machine. The State should help workers in
sickness, unemployment, and old age by better methods than it does, and national pro-
vision should be made for such cases. As the State looks after children in providing
education for their future trades and professions, so also it should make provision that
during their later life they should never be dependent upon mere charity. Germany
has provided a scheme for her workers, and New Zealand has instituted pensions and a
National Provident Fund. More is required.
Second Meeting : 30th June. 1911.
The President, Mr. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.. in the chair.
New Member. — Mr. Malcolm McLeod.
Papers. — 1. " Some Contents of Napier Waters." By J. Niven.
A later paper will deal more fully with the subject.
2. " A Chat on Some Peculiar Stones." By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.
Various peculiar and interesting stones were shown and their story told.
Papers. 19
PAPERS
1. Some Effects oj Imported Animals on the. Indigenous Vegetation.
By B. C. Aston. F.I.C. F.C.S.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th May, 1911.]
The Tauherinikau Valley is portion of a public-works reserve, and extends
from the mouth of the gorge near Featherston for some twelve miles in a
northerly direction. The valley is a natural fastness into which man seldom
penetrates. Bounded on all sides by mountains of 1.500 ft. or more in
height, the only outlet for the river bemg a trackless gorge, the valley has
become a sanctuary for escaped cattle, wild pigs, and rabbits. On either
side of the river, which is comparable with the Hutt in size, are extensive
gravel-flats covered with light scrub, chiefly Leptospermum (manuka), fre-
quently broken by patches of good grass land on which Yorkshire fog, red
and white clovers, and cocksfoot ffcr 1 excellent pasturage for cattle. In
January, 1910, one herd of eleven, which allowed one to approach closely,
was seen. Along the narrower and higher portions of the valley, where the
forest closes into the stream, tracks have been made by the cattle in all
directions. It is probably from this valley that they have gained access
to the Mount Alpha portion of the Tararua Range above the bush-line.
On this high country the effect of the cattle is most readily observed. Well-
beaten tracks have been made along all the main ridges from the Quoin
(3,900 ft.) to Mount Alpha (4,600 ft.), and thence, to the south side of Mount
Hector, approaching almost to the summit. No tracks were observed on
the Otaki side of Mount Hector. On the slopes of Mount Alpha nearly
every plant of Ligusticum dissectum T. K.* had been closely cropped, from
which it appears that this succulent umbellifer, which is one of the most
abundant and characteristic plants of this range, will disappear where the
cattle are able to reach it. No good argument can be adduced for allowing
the cattle to remain. Being so tame they will not provide sport ; of the
Hereford breed, they are not so picturesque as, for instance, Highland
cattle would be ; and, although as track-makers they have done some
good work, further toleration of their existence is likely to result in a perma-
nent alteration of the flora, which, from the proximity to Wellington City,
should be preserved intact. The effect of the depredations of pigs is every-
where noticeable in the valley, both in the forest and on the manuka flats
and grass lands, where in the aggregate large areas have been turned over.
On the valley-flats a fine patch of the rare orchid Gastrodia sesamoides had
been destroyed. Gastrodia Cunninghamii, with its large underground tubers,
now fairly common in the Tararua forests, is likely to become very rare.
On the high bushed spurs, where well-defined tracks have been worn, the
most noticeable objects of the attentions of pigs are the species of Panax
(family Araliaceae). These shrubs (P. Colensoi, P. arboreum, and P. simplex)
are often barked up to 3 ft. or 4 ft. from the ground, the white wood beneath
showing the imprint of large teeth. In the Marlborough Sounds goats are
*_High up orTNgauruhoe rabbits are similarly exterminating L. aromaticvm.
20 Papers.
fast killing out the species of Panax, which are completely barked up to
4 ft. or 5 ft. from the ground. Horses will also bark the shrubs of this
genus.
The Waipakihi River (the main source of Lake Taupo and the Waikato
River) rises in the Kaimanawa Mountains, and flows through them for
some eighteen miles before emerging into the plain. The upper reaches
drain some thousands of acres of pumice-flats, the Kaimanawa Range,
although of old sedimentary formation, having been plentifully peppered
with pumice from the contiguous volcanic area. The pumice-flats contain
material in which rabbits may easily burrow, and they have accordingly
taken possession in their thousands. The flats are at an elevation of from
3,000 ft. to 3,500 ft., and are covered with a shrubby growth of Veronica
buxifolia, V. laevis, V. tetragona, and V. salicijolia (family Scrophulariaceae),
or with tussocks of Poa caespitosa and Festuca rubra and Danthonia Kaoulii
(family Gramineae), with smaller plants between, such as Raoulia australis,
Acaena sp.. &c, and Aciphylla Colensoi. It is difficult, owing to the ravages
of the rabbits, to say what the flora of the grass-flats originally was. Pro-
bably a number of finer grasses have been eaten out. and evidence is not
wanting that food is scarce. Little piles of the leaves of Veronica salicijolia
were seen near the bushes, which may be attributed to rabbits nibbling the
stalks off and leaving the blade. Many plants of Aciphylla Colensoi (family
Umbelliferae) had been eaten down to the heart. The harsh Festuca rubra
tussocks seemed to have suffered less than other grasses, but even these had
been occasionally attacked. At Waipahi (Kaimanawas), just above the
bush-line at 4,400 ft., on the hillside, Danthonia Raoulii was the sole sur-
vivor, and that had been badly eaten, possibly by wild horses as well as
by rabbits and pigs.
These two valleys, though widely separated, are excellent examples
of natural sanctuaries, including extensive river-flats walled in by steep,
heavily bushed mountains, the only natural outlet being a long, winding
gorge where the river issues into the plain. The floras of these valleys are
rapidly changing in character owing to the attacks of imported animals,
which, because of difficulty or illegality of access to the valleys, are not
kept in check by man.
One effect of imported animals may be to restrict the more edible plants
to situations beyond their reach. A species, therefore, which is able to
adapt itself to any station may by compulsion be restricted to one. For
instance, lepidium oleraceuw (" Cook's scurvy-grass " — family Cruciferae)
has been eaten out along the Wellington Coast, and is nowr generally only
to be found growing on inaccessible rock-faces. Similarly, Senecio Greyii
(family Compositae), although able to grow on any soil, as testified by its
presence in most collections of native shrubs, at Mukumuku, Palliser Bay, is
restricted, possibly chiefly owring to goats, to stations which would lead the
ecologist to class it as a chasmophyte. One may see abundance, of this
beautiful free-flowering plant growing on the cliffs, but it is with great diffi-
culty that specimens may be secured. A common plant of littoral rock-
faces is the grass Agropyrum scdbrum, which is greatly relished by sheep.
It is being eaten out possibly on the central volcanic plateau of the North
Island and elsewhere. At Alexandra, Central Otago, this grass assumes the
habit of a tussock-grass, and is then better able to resist close cropping.
It is, indeed, on the littoral that the evidences of the destructive influence
of animals on vegetation are most readily found. The long winding coast-
line of South Wellington Province affords a commonage where both domestic
Papers. 21
and wild animals may resort for salt-licks and saline plants, such as
Salicornia australis and other plants of the salt-bush family (Chenopodiaceae) .
When food is scarce the giant perennial-stemmed grass Spinifex hirsutus
is voraciously eaten, as has been observed at Pencarrow Heads and
Titahi Bay. At the latter habitat marram-grass (Ammophila arundinacea)
was untouched, but horses had eaten the Spinifex off short. The pre-
ference which stock exhibit for Spinifex over marram should be taken
into account in considering the rival merits of the two grasses as
sand-binders. A fern, Gymnpgramme, once abundant on Wellington coasts,
is believed to have been exterminated by sheep and rabbits. Being an
annual it would be eaten before the spores were shed.
At Rocky Bay (Titahi Bay) is a recently raised beach. High above
high-water mark is a boulder beach, then a sandy strip containing fresh-
water pools, the sand being covered with a closely cropped sward of
(1) Crantzia lineata (family Umbelliferae), (2) Samolus repens* (family
Primulaceae). (3) Ranunculus acaulis, named in the order of their relative
abundance. There are also present Atropis stricta (family Gramineae),
Cotula coronopifolia (family Compositae), and Selliera radicans (family
Goodenovieae). Sheep greedily browse on this sward and drink from the
pools, in which frogs are living. The term " salt meadow," which is applied
by ecologists to this formation, must therefore not be interpreted in a
superlative sense. Separating the salt meadow from the sea is a raised
rocky terrace. Sheep have been observed browsing on a sward of similar
composition near Island Bay. On the dry hillside above Rocky Bay
Eryngium vesiculosum (family Umbelliferae) has been closely eaten down
by sheep, and it is feared that Lepidium tenuicaule var. minor (family Cruci-
ferae), common here in 1907, has been entirely eaten out. On the rocky scarps
near here Aciphylla squarrosa was observed in March, 1908, to have been
badly eaten back. Further round the Titahi Bay peninsula, at the point
facing Plimmerton, are stretches of raised sandy beach containing the
remains of sea-animals and consequently much carbonate of lime. This
has resulted in a shallow black soil supporting a sweet herbage, largely the
naturalized alfilaria (Erodium circutarium, family Geraniaceae). The rabbits
are spoiling much of this by covering it with earth from their burrows.
Changes in the indigenous flora by means of the spread of exotic species,
the seed of which is distributed by imported animals, are being brought about
in various localities. Examples which might no doubt be added to are the
African box-thorn (Lycium horridum), which is spreading in the Taranaki
bush ; the blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), in many parts of the North Island
and in the Nelson Province ; the elderberry (Sambucus niger), near Dun-
edin ; the gooseberry (Ribes grossularia), in many parts of the South Island ;
the Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana), in the Wanganui, Thames, and
Tauranga districts ; the ink-plant (Phytolacca octandra) ; and even the
strawberry (Fragaria vesca), in some parts of the Auckland Province. All
these fruits are spread by birds, especially the blackbird, and thereby the
native vegetation certainly is being displaced. f
* At Havelock (Marlborough) the estuarial mud-flats are covered with Samolus,
and the cattle laboriously drag themselves through the mud to obtain the plant.
•f- The spread of introduced weeds is not without its economical side. Sheep have
been fattened on fleabane (Erigeron strigosa) in North Auckland and on Atriplex patula
var. hastata in Canterbury, while the winged or star thistle (Carduus pycnocephalus) is,
according to Dr. Petrie, the salvation of the runholder in parts of Central Otago.
22 Papers.
Rats (both the grey and the black), by eating the seeds, undoubtedly
influence the spread of many species. The grey rat has a fondness foi
the seeds of the New Zealand passion-flower (Passiflora tetrandra), the
fruit of the kiekie (Freycinetia Banksii), and nikau-palm (Rhopalostylis
sapida). Possibly the introduced birds may assist in the spread of the
indigenous plants having edible fruits, such as the wineberry (Aristotelia
racemosa). Ftichsia excorticata, poroporo (Solanum aviculare), and bramble
(Rubus australis).
No one who has seen sheep covered with Acaena " burrs " (piripiri) can
hesitate to admit the large part which that animal plays in the spread of
this nativ weed.
Pigs are most partial to the seed of the hinau (Elaeocarpus dentatus,.
family Tilioceae), on which they fatten, and the roots of bracken (Ptcris
aquilina). The native arrowroot fern (Marattia fraxinea) is fast being killed
out by pigs on account of its large starchy rhizome.
The spread of clovers and other leguminous seed by animals must be
a considerable factor in altering vegetation. At Palliser Bay gravel-fans,
covering in some cases many acres, are formed by heavy rainfalls. The
first plant to establish itself on the finer detritus is Raoulia australis, forming-
large depressed patches. Ultimately a certain amount of organic matter
is formed by these patches of vegetation, and in October, 1907, clovers and
other introduced leguminous plants were noted to be growing out of these
patches. It is possible that they may in time displace the Raoidia, as in
older but similarly formed land in the vicinity a close sward of Leauminosae
monopolizes the soil.
The partiality which stock exhibit for certain shrubs such as the mahoe
or hinahina, the so-called " cow-tree " of the settler (Melicytus ramiflorus,.
family Violaceae), the karamu (Coprosma grandifolia and C. tenuifolia, family
Rubiaceae), and the broadleaf (Griselinia littoralis, family Cornaceae) have
led to the practice among stockmen of cutting the shrubs down for
fodder in times of scarcity. Another shrub evidently much relished is the
mangrove (Avicennia officinalis, family Verbenaccae). Travellers along the
Thames railway-line may see the lower branches of the fine mangrove shrubs
of the estuaries trimmed off by cattle in the same way as they do the weep-
ing willows in the meadows, no branches appearing below a certain level- —
the limit of the cattle's reach. In the Rotorua district I am informed that
tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa, family Lauraceae) leaves are readily eaten by
stock. Cattle greedily eat karaka-leaves (Corynocarpus laevigata, family
Anacardiaceae). The fruit, poisonous to some animals, causes in pigs only
a partial paralysis of the hind legs.
Central Otago, which contains such excellent examples of the effects of
overstocking and of the rabbits on the indigenous vegetation, has furnished
me with a few notes. On the Rock and Pillar Range (Middlemarch side)
in December, 1908, Hymcnanthcra crassifolia* (family Violaceae) was found
to be eaten down by rabbits. (This effect has also been largely observed on
the raised beaches at Turakirae Head. Palliser Bay.) Celmisia Lyalln
(family Compositae) was almost eaten out except on a few inaccessible rocks
at 3,700 ft. At Gimmcrburn, on a dry hillside above the Government
nursery, the ground was bare save for a few scattered plants of Agropyrmu
pcdinatum (naturalized) and Koelcria Kurtzii. These two grasses had
been nibbled down very short, but were surviving, and the former was
producing seed in quantity.
* Mr. Cheeseman thinks this may be //. dmiata var alpina.
Papers. 23
The soils of the Southern Islands are the very antithesis of those of
'Central Otago, but even here the flora is being slowly changed by imported
animals. On Auckland Island, in November, 1907, at Flat-topped Moun-
tain, Carnley Harbour, and above the scrub-line, pigs had eaten freely of
Pleuwphyllum Hookeri (family Compositae), having grubbed up the plant
to get at the rootstock. At Port Ross, Auckland Island, in January, 1909.
at 1,100 ft. numerous pig-tracks were observed, and Pleurophyllum specio-
sum appeared to have been eaten out on all stations but inaccessible rock-
faces. At Enderby Island the cattle had considerably cut up the bush,
but their greatest effect Avas noticeable on the tussocks of Poa littorosa, a
.grass which is evidently being exterminated at that habitat. At Camp-
bell Island, which is inhabited and farmed as a sheep-run, the Stilbocarpa
polaris (family Araliaceae) is being eaten out by sheep. On the other hand,
there are no pigs, as at Auckland Island, to attack the Bulhinetta Rossii*
(family Liliaceae), which is spreading at an alarming rate. On the " burn,"
under the " Judge's Chair," at 725 ft. the Dracophyllum scoparium and
D. longijolium are being replaced by Poa littorosa and Bulbinella Rossii. In
<>ne paddock near the wool-shed at Perseverance Harbour the flora con-
sisted solely of a thick mass of Bulbinella Rossii — a magnificent sight.
The important family Leguminosae is sparsely represented in New Zea-
land. Horses are fond of chewing the taller species of Carmichaelia. It
would be interesting to learn whether the dwarf species are diminishing
owing to the attacks of rabbits in the more arid parts.
Sheep, and to a less degree cattle, frequently eat the smaller species of
tutu (Coriaria. family Coriariacae), though it is not likely that they appre-
ciably affect its abundance. Fern (Pteris aquilina, family Filices) is kept
in check by close feeding by cattle. Both of these are. instances of plants
which under certain conditions may have a poisonous effect on stock, serv-
ing as part of a regular ration. The hinahina (Melicytus raw/iflorus) has
been suspected of injuriously affecting stock at Catlin's (Otago), but definite
information is wanting.
Cattle and sheep, though having their preferences, will eat most ferns,
any shrubs, and seedlings of forest-trees when food is scarce. In small
isolated clumps of bush the undergrowth is sometimes completely destroyed.
Omitting the grasses, the native plants which find most favour with
herbiverous animals would appear to be those belonging to the families
Cruciferae, Umbelliferae, Araliaceae, Violaceae, Malvaceae, Tiliaceae, Rubi-
aceae, Primulaceae. Leguminosae, and Chenopodiaceae ; Juncaceae and
Cyperaceae contain genera (Juncus, Luzula, and Mariscus) species of which
•are often devoured by stock ; Compositae and Liliaceae contain some species
which are often browsed.
There are doubtless other non-poisonous native plants which supply
either normally or in times of scarcity food for animals, and the author
would be extremely obliged if other observers would publish or communi-
cate to him any facts which will throw further light on the subject.
Very little has been recorded in the past on the subject of this paper.
An interesting article on " The Displacement of Species in New Zealand,"
by the late T. Bark (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 17) gives a general account
of the naturalization of many forms of life and the probable effect on the
indigenous forms. Of special interest under the title of this paper are the
* Although the Bulbinella does not seem to be relished by sheep or cattle, the allied
liliaceous plants Phormium and Oordyline are eaten on the mainland by cattle.
24 Papers.
facts that rats attack the Gastrodia tuber, that birds apparently spread the
tutsan (Hypericum Androsoenum) seeds, and that the tainui (Pomaderris
apetala) has been completely destroyed at Kawhia. where it was formerly
abundant. Dr. L. Cockayne, J. S. Tennant, and E. K. Waite (" Subantarctic
Islands of New Zealand," pp. 235, 599) also have some remarks on the effect
of pigs on Auckland and of sheep on Campbell Island floras. (See also
Dr. L. Cockayne in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, p. 297.)
Mr. Cheeseman ("Manual of the New Zealand Flora," pp. 81, 82, 223)
mentions that Hibiscus diver sifolius (family Malvaceae) is being destroyed
rapidly by cattle, fires, &c. ; that Entelea arborescens (family Tiliaceae)* is
greedily eaten by cattle and horses, and is consequently becoming rare on
the mainland, except in comparatively inaccessible situations ; and that
Angelica gingidium has become scarce owing to the attacks of stock.
I am indebted to Messrs. T. F. Cheeseman, D. Petrie, E. Phillips Turner,
F. R. Field, and A. Morris Jones for much information contained in this
paper.
2. Note on Helichrysum fasciculatum Buchanan.
By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.
In the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. 9, p. 529, Mr. J.
Buchanan described, under the name of Helichrysum, fasciculatum; a plant
collected on the Tararua Mountains by Mr. H. H. Travers. When pre-
paring my " Manual of the New Zealand Flora," Mr. Buchanan's types
of that particular species were not accessible to me, and the only specimen
available for examination was in such poor condition that no positive con-
clusions could be arrived at. Under such circumstances, I had to rely
principally on Mr. Buchanan's description and figure, which seemed to
show that the species was distinct. »
During a recent visit to the Dominion Museum I had an opportunity of
inspecting Mr. Buchanan's original specimens, and was at once impressed
with their resemblance to Raoulia grandiflora. Since then Mr. Hamilton
has been kind enough to lend them to me for leisurely examination, the
result of which I submit herewith. In the first place, an examination of
the flowers proves that the plant cannot be referred to Helichrysum, as that
genus is understood at the present time. Helichrysum, in addition to its
numerous hermaphrodite florets (a character which distinguishes it from
Gnaphalium, in which the female florets outnumber the hermaphrodite),
possesses slender pappus-hairs, which are scabrid or pectinate at the base,
and the achenes are either glabrous or simply puberulous. Now, in Mr.
Buchanan's plant the hermaphrodite florets certainly outnumber the
females, but the pappus-hairs are stout, rigid, compressed, thickened and
toothed above, but quite naked at the base, and the achenes are hirsute
with long hairs. These characters of the pappus and achenes are not only
at variance with the definition of Helichrysum, but agree perfectly with that
of the section Imbricaria of the genus Raoulia, to which R. grandiflora
belongs.
Comparing 11. fasciculatum with R. grandiflora, they appear almost
identical, one important difference being alone noticeable : R. grandi-
flora invariably has its flower-heads solitary and terminal. I have gathered
* Stock are also partial to the allied winebeiiv (Aristotelia racemosa).
Papers. 25
it in many localities in both Islands, and examined hundreds of specimens,
but I have never seen even two flower-heads to a stem, and I understand
that the experience of other observers is the same. On the other hand,
Mr. Buchanan's two flowering specimens of H. fasciculatum each have three
flower-heads. If this character should prove constant, it is quite sufficient
to uphold the specific distinction of his plant, but until additional speci-
mens with the same peculiarity have been obtained it is permissible to take
the view that we are dealing with a pair of abnormal specimens. In sup-
port of this view I may mention that the individual heads are precisely
similar to those of R. grandiflora, the shape and size of the corolla, the
pappus-hairs, and the achenes being identical in both. The leaves of
H. fasciculatum are slightly larger and broader than in R. grandiflora, and
the covering of felted tomentum somewhat denser, but these differences
are not more than might be expected in an unusually luxuriant form. On
the whole, I am inclined to regard it as an aberrant form of R. grandiflora
rather than a distinct, species.
Both Sir J. D. Hooker and myself have expressed the opinion that the
remarkable differences between the pappus-hairs of the two sections of the
genus Raoulia would ultimately, when the gnaphalioid Compositae were
fully worked out, prove sufficient to separate them as distinct genera. In
a series of papers contributed to the Botanical Society of Geneva, under
the title of " Contributions a l'Etude des Composees," Dr. Gustave Beau-
verd, the well-known keeper of the Boissier Herbarium, has endeavoured
to clear up some of the difficulties which at present encumber the classi-
fication of the Gnaphalieae. In a special number of the series he dis-
cusses the relationships of Raoulia with its allies, and establishes three
new genera — Psychrophyton, consisting of Hooker's section Imbricaria of
Raoulia ; Leucogenes, containing Helichrysum Leontopodium and H. grandi-
ceps ; and Ewartia, comprising three species from Victoria and Tasmania,
of which R. catipes is the type. Dr. Beauverd's paper, which is printed in
the Bulletin of the society for 1910 (pp. 207 to 241), is one of the most im-
portant publications dealing with the New Zealand Compositae that has
appeared for many years, and I hope to prepare a resume of it for publica-
tion in the Transactions.
3. Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand.
By Gilbert Archey.
Communicated by Dr. Chas. Chilton.
[Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th July, 1911.]
Very little appears to have been published on the species of Hydra found in
New Zealand. The first definite record was made in 1867 by Dr. Coughtrey,*
who found a specimen in a stream near Dunedin. In his note he says, " This
Hydra, in general form, is like //. viridis, in colour pale brown, and has
seven tentacula, which are peculiar in this respect, that they are distinctly
annulated and each ring is fringed." No name was given to this species
by Coughtrey. In an earlier paper he says in a footnote, " I have seen
two Hydrae in New Zealand, one nearly like H. viridis of Britain, and the
* Coughtrey : " Critical Notes on New Zealand Hydroida." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 4, vol. 17, p. 22; 1867.
26 Papa*.
other I have not been able to identify with th>' British members of
Gymnochroa.'"*
In 1879 Mr. A. Hamilton,! in a paper on fresh-water Polyzoa, incidentally
mentioned the occurrence in a swamp near Napier of '* a large reddish -
brown Hydra.''' The next record is by Farqnhar.J who, in 1896, published
a catalogued list of the New Zealand Hydroida. In his list he mentions
only one Hydra — -i.e., the one which Coughtrey had described as above.
Unfortunately, he calls it H. viridis. evidently misreading Coughtrey\
description. Under this name h appears in the " Index Faunae Novae-
Zealandiae."§
In 1910 Dr. W. B. Benham|i published a note on " A Species of Hydra
new to New Zealand," which was found in the Shag Valley, and which,
he said, was characterized by a rich reddish-brown, almost mahogany,
colour, and by the great size (up to 15 mm.). He also refers to a small brown
species found near Dunedin. probably the same as the one mentioned by
Coughtrey.
In addition to the published facts referred to above, Dr. Hilgendorf.
Professor Thomas, Professor Kirk, and Dr. Chilton have kindly contributed
information as to the occurrence of species of Hydra in New Zealand.
Dr. Hilgendorf has seen a small brown form which occurs in ponds at
Woodhaugh, near Dunedin. This is probably the same as the brown species
of Coughtrey and Benham.
Professor Kirk writes that there appear to be two kinds in Wellington,
one a dark-brown form, and the other a light-brown one. Professor Thomas
says that Hydra appears to be widely distributed about Auckland, and
notes the occurrence of the following : (1) a brownish or yellowish-brown
form ; (2) a form of a colour to suggest orange ; (3) a nearly colourless
form ; (4) a green species. He considers (1) to be the form commonly
called H. jusca, and (2) and (3) to be colour-varieties of it. The forms noted
by Professor Kirk and Dr. Hilgendorf probably belong to this species also.
In 1885 Dr. Chilton in his manuscript note-book recorded the appearance
of a Hydra in Christchurch. The animal observed was light brown in colour,
and appeared to him to be the same as the form commonly known as
H. jusca.
Specimens of a brown Hydra have, for several years past, been obtained
in moderate numbers from the River Avon, for use in the biological laboratory
at Canterbury College, though until lately no green ones were seen. But
in April of this year, while searching for Hydra in water from the River
Avon, several green specimens were discovered. These forms agree exactly,
in the characters that can be observed, with the descriptions given of
H. viridis. The gonads, however, have not been seen.
According to Hickson,^ three species of Hydra are known in England
-viz., H. viridis Linn.. H. oligactis Pall. (= H. jusca Linn.), H. vulgaris
Pall. Hickson gives a short description of each of these species.
A comparison of the forms found in New Zealand with these and other
descriptions shows that the green species observed in Christchurch is certainly
H. viridis, and the green form noted by Professor Thomas at Auckland
probably must be placed here also. It seems likely that the Shag Valley
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 8, p. 299; 1876.
f Hamilton : " On Melicerta ringens and Plumatdla rcpen$." Trail*. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 12, p. 303.
% Farquhar : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 468; 1896.
§ " Index Faunae Novae-Zealandiae," edited by F. W. Hutton, London ; 1904.
i| Benham : Proc. N.Z. Inst, for 1909, part iv, p. 128 ; 1910.
• Hiekson : ': Cambridge Natural History." vol. 1, OoehrUerata, p. 2G6 ; 1906.
Papers. '21
specimens described by Dr. Benham are representatives of H. vulgaris.
though this cannot be decided with certainty till they have been examined
more closely. The large reddish -brown form noted by Hamilton will pro-
bably also belong to this species. The light-brown species mentioned above
as found at Dunedin, Chr'stchurch, &c. appears to belong to the well-
known brown Hydra of Europe, commonly referred to as H. fusca. This
should, however, be called H. oligactis, this being the name first given to
rhe species by Pallas. It seems to be the most common species in New
Zealand, having been seen in Christchurch, Wellington, Auckland, and
Dunedin. Coughtrey's species evidently belongs here too.
The New Zealand species now known of Hydra, then, arc H. viridis.
H. vulgaris, and H. oligactis.
Hydra viridis Linn.
Hydra viridis Linn.. Sys. Nat.. 12th ed., p. 1320, 1767 ; Johnston, British
Zoophytes, p. 121." 1847 ; Hincks, British Hvdroid Zoophytes, p. 312.
1868:' Hickson, Camb. Nat. Hist,, vol. 1, p. 256. 1906: Brauer,
Zool. Anz., vol. 33, p. 790, 1909.
Dr. Brauer says that the correct name for this species should be
//. viridissima Pall. (1766), but the name H. viridis is so well known and
commonly accepted that it would be inconvenient to alter it ; and, more-
over, it was used by Linnaeus for this form in the 10th edition of the Systema
Naturae, though not definitely as a specific name. In this edition Linnaeus
gave all the forms of Hydra under the one name, H. polypus, and it was not
until the 12th edition that he divided them up into separate species.
Hickson describes this species thus : " Colour grass-green. Average
number of tentacles, eight. Tentacles shorter than the body. Embryonic
chitinous membrane spherical and a7most smooth."
The specimens from the River Avon agree closely with the descriptions
i^iven by Hickson. Johnston, and Hincks. The species is now known in
New Zealand from Christchurch and Auckland.
? Hydra vulgaris Pallas.
? Hydra vulgaris Pallas, Elench. Zooph., p. 30, 1766 ; Hickson, Camb.
Nat. Hist,, vol. 1, p. 256, 1906. Hydra (" reddish-brown species ").
Hamilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 12, p. 303. 1879 ; Benham, Proc!
N.Z. Inst., 1909, p. 128, 1910.
Hickson's description is as follows : " Colour orange-brown. Tentacles
rather longer than the body, average number six. Embryonic chitinous
membrane spherical and covered with numerous branched fpines." Brauer
adds that the proximal end of the body is not narrowed into a stalk, that
four kinds of thread-cells are present, and that the ammal is hermaphrodite.
Habitat. — Shag Valley, Dunedin ; Petane Valley, Napier.
I have not seen specimens of this species.
Hydra oligactis Pallas.
Hydra oligactis Pallas, Elench. Zooph., p. 29, 1766 ; Johnston, British
Zoophytes, p. 124, 1847 ; Hincks, British Hydroid Zoophytes, p. 315,
1868 ; Hickson, Camb. Nat, Hist., vol. 1, p. 256, 1906 ; W. M. Sale,
Cat. Austral. Hyd. Zooph., p. 187, 1884 ; Brauer, Zool. Anz., vol. 33,
p. 792, 1909 ; H. fusca Linnaeus, Sys. Nat,, 12th ed., p. 1320. 1767 ;
H. viridis Farquhar, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. W. p. 468. 1896 : Hutton.
Index Faunae N.Z.. p. 321. 1904.
28 Papers.
" Colour brown. Tentacles capable of great extension, sometimes.
when fully expanded, several times the length of the body. Average number,
six. Embryonic chitinous membrane plano-convex, its convex side only
covered with spines." — (Hickson.)
Habitat. — Christchurch, Wellington, Auckland, and Dunedin.
In the paper by Dr. Brauer referred to above II. oligactis is divided into
two species- — viz., H. oligactis Pall, and II. polypus Linn. The defining
characters given by him are, —
" H. oligactis Pall. Stalked, tentacles very long. Body 2-3 cm. long.
Three kinds of thread-cells, sexes separate, testes on all parts of the body
except the stalk. Eggs usually adhering in groups, spherical, and covered
with very short spines. Colour grey, brown, or red."
" 77. polypus Linn. Stalked, body not more than 2 cm. long, usually
1-1-5 cm. Four kinds of thread-cells. Hermaphrodite, testes only in
distal third of body, eggs attached singly with under-surface smooth, upper
convex and covered with short spines. Colour grey or brown."
The brown forms I have examined seem to belong to H. oligactis. Only
three kinds of thread-cells can be made out. the three kinds apparently
corresponding to those described by Brauer as occurring in H. oligactis.
It has not been possible, however, to examine the gonads in these forms,
and until this is done their identity must remain to a certain extent doubtful.
Of the specimens found near Melbourne, Mr. W. M. Sale observes that
" the attenuation of the lower part of the body is by no means so conspicuous
as shown in Mr. Hmck's figures of the English species." This, too, is the
case with most of the specimens of H. oligactis seen in Christchurch.
It is to be noted that all the specimens of Hydra in New Zealand seem
to have been found near habitations. I have not heard of any having been
found in spots where the possibility of introduction by man could be excluded.
The consideration of this, and the fact that the New Zealand species are
apparently the same as those found in Europe, seem to lead to the conclusion
that Hydra is not indigenous to New Zealand, but has at some time or other
been accidentallv introduced.
4. Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands.
By Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S., Curator, Canterbury Museum.
[Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th July, 1911.]
In consequent of the destruction of his farm at the Kermadec Islands
by the recent hurricane, Mr. Roy C. Bell returned with his family to New
Zealand. H*^ brought with him a small collection of fishes, in continua-
tion of the endeavours of Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, who, as a member of the
party which visited the islands in 1908, supplied the material already
recorded.* The specimens were, for the most part, picked up dry upon
the beach or gathered from rock-pools on Sunday Island. Owing to mutila-
tion many of them are irrecognizable, and those which can be identified
are known species. The following have not been previously recorded from
the Kermadec Islands : —
* Waite : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, pp. 370-383, pi. xxxv and xxxvi.
Papers. 29
Ruleptorhamphas longirostris Cuvier, Regne Anim.. 2nd ed., vol. 2. p. 286.
1829.
The only specimen contained in the collection measures 336 mm. from
the tip of the upper jaw to the end of the middle rays of the caudal, and
the mandible projects 120 mm. beyond the upper jaw. I have previously
recorded this species for Lord Howe Island.*
Aulacocephalus temmincki Bleeker, Verh. Batav. Gen., vol. 26, 1857,
Tchth. Jap., p. 12.
This record appears to be the first for the species in the Western Hemi-
sphere, and the locality represents its most southerly known range. The
places whence it has been obtained are widely separated, and are as follows :
Japan. Siam, Mauritius, Kermadec Islands. The specimen measures
270 mm. in length.
Epinephelus daemelii Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. 17, p. 391,
1876.
Quite common on the coast of New South Wales, and found also at
Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, this species is now recorded for the Ker-
madec Islands, and furnishes another instance of the similarity of their
respective fish faunas, a matter to which I have already drawn attention.
Upeneus signatus Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3), vol. 20, p. 59, 1867.
A similar example is provided by the red mullet, known from the waters
of New South Wales .and Lord Howe Island. Though not yet taken at
Norfolk Island, it is tolerably certain to be found there when representative
collections of its fauna are made.
5. The Action of Alhyl Iodides on ( \>ppir~oxide.
By H. G. Denham. M.A.. D.Sc. Ph.D.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th July, 1911.]
The existence of cupric iodide in aqueous solution was first demonstrated
by Moritz Trautz (Ber. d. D. Chem. Gessell, 1884, vol. 17, 1866), while
Carnegie (Chem. News, 1889, vol. 59, 57) showed that any attempt to obtain
solid cupric iodide by the evaporation of a solution containing Cu++ and
L'ions always led to the separation of iodine and cuprous iodide. Walker
and Dover (Jour. Chem. Soc, 1905. vol. 87, 1584) obtained a compound of
the formula Cul4, but all efforts to obtain cupric iodide itself have up to
the present proved futile. The presence of the slightest trace of moisture
is sufficient to cause the decomposition of the unstable cupric iodide, and
it is to this fact that our failure to prepare this salt is due.
The action of dried methyl-iodide vapour on heated copper-oxide
appeared to the author to form a promising method for securing cupric
iodide, and, as the vapour of the alkyl iodides can be readily dried over
phosphorus-pentoxide, it was hoped that the iodide, once formed, would
not suffer the usual decomposition.
* Waite : Rec. Aust. Mus., vol. 5, p. 24, 1903.
30 Papers.
The apparatus consisted of a distillation-flask containing the alkyl iodide
and pkosphorus-pentoxide, two U tubes containing the same drying
reagent, a further U tube containing carefully dried copper-oxide, and an
upright condenser connected to a receiver with suitable guard-tubes.
Between the distillation-flask and the first drying-tube was interposed a T
piece that allowed the entry of dry carbonic acid. After the whole ap-
paratus had been sealed together, glass to glass, the various U tubes were
heated to the required temperature and the apparatus exhausted. Dried
carbonic-acid gas was then allowed to stream in, and, in order to insure
the complete absence of oxygen, as well as complete drving, this opera-
tion was repeated about thirty times.
A preliminary experiment showed that at a temperature of 310° G. the
oxide reacted quickly with the iodide, while at this temperature the vapour
of the volatile alkyl compound suffered no decomposition. The rate at
which the iodide distilled could be readily controlled, and it was generally
so regulated that about 80 grammes were distilled over in 45 minutes.
A few experiments sufficed to show that the reaction, instead of taking
the course represented by the equation CuO -f- 2 CH3I = Cul2 -f (CH3)20,
took a much more complex path, the ultimate solid product invariably
being cuprous iodide. Since not the slightest liberation of iodine was noted,
as would occur were the cuprous iodide formed by the decomposition of
the unstable cupric salt, it is to be concluded that cuprous iodide is the
primary product of the reaction.
Numerous other products of the reaction were also obtained. The
distillate always gave a strong aldehyde reaction, and it was also possible
to collect a considerable quantity of gas. This proved to contain oxygen,
carbon-monoxide, ethylene, methane, and its homologues. When methyl-
iodide was used, the first three gases were contained to the extent of about
3 per cent., while the methane series bulked very largely in the total. The
substitution of ethyl-iodide for methyl-iodide caused a marked change in the
ratio of saturated to unsaturated hydrocarbons, for the percentage of ethy-
lene rose to about 50 per cent., while the saturated hydrocarbons fell from
about 90 to 45 per cent.
6. The Nature of Gamma Rays.
By "Professor T. H. Laby and P. W. Burbidge, B.Sc. Senior University
Scholar.
| Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 12th July, 1911.']
Dr. E. von Schweidler pointed out in 1905 that an effect such as ioniza-
tion by a rays due to a finite, number of independent events would be subject
to fluctuations. The mathematical theory of the different experiments
which have been made with light, a and /? rays, has been developed by
Mr. N. R. Campbell.
One of us began some preliminary experiments in 1908 at the Cavendish
Laboratory to detect discontinuous effects with y rays. Two forms of
apparatus have been used in our experiments. In the first two similar
cylindrical ionization- vessels were placed close together with their axes
directed to the source of the y rays — some radium. If the y rays have
Papers. 31
a spherical wave-front, the two similar vessels, being syinetrically placed
with respect to the source, should be equally effected by the y rays,
though the results of the equal effects may not be the same. If, on the
other hand, the y rays are any type of corpuscular radiation (in the New-
tonian sense) made of a finite number of pai-ticles. the effect in the ioniza-
tion-vessels would be unequal over short periods of time. To compare
the number of ions produced in the two vessels, the electrodes were con-
nected to an electrometer, one vessel being positively the other negatively
charged. The positive and negative currents from the two cans were
balanced as closely as possible for long periods of time, and so there was
no large steady drift, of the electrometer. The quartz fibre electrometer
(Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. 15, p. 106, 1909) showed fluctuations in this
balance. In the second apparatus a box-shaped ionization-can with a
central plane electrode was used. The positive ions formed in one half
of the can were received on one side of the flat electrode, the negative ions
from the other half of the can on the other side of the electrode. By
making the can airtight and thoroughly drying the contained air, complete
"saturation" was produced with a field of only 8 volts per cm. Large
fluctuations were observed when the ionization currents from the two
halves were balanced, the source of y rays being placed outside the can
in the plane of the central electrode. This experimental result would be
explained if (1) the y rays from radium are projected particles, or (2) if
the number of ions produced in air by a constant source of rays is subject to
fluctuations.
We are. continuing the experiments with a view to determining what
part each of these factors plays in producing the fluctuations observed.
The radium used in these experiment* was lent by the Royal Society of
London.
32 Abstracts.
ABSTRACTS.
1. Die Gattung Townsonia Cheesem. Bv R. Schlechter. (Abstract from
Fedde, Repertorium ix, pp. 249-250 : 1911).
The genus Townsonia was originally published by T. F. Cheeseinan in 1906 in the
"Manual of the New Zealand Flora" (p. 691), and was placed in the vicinity of
Adenochilus Hook. f. When Dr. Schlechter undertook a new arrangement of the Poly-
chondreae (equivalent to the Neottieae of other authors) he was unable, through the
absence of specimens, to decide on the exact relationships of the genus. Having received
a copious suite from its describer, he has now been able to study it in detail. He has
arrived at the conclusion that it is best placed between Acianthus R. Br., which is found
in Australia and New Caledonia as well as in New Zealand, and Stigmatodactylus Maxim.,
which has three species in Japan, India, and Java respectively. At the same time,
there is an undoubtedly strong resemblance to the subfamily Caladeniinae in the broadly
winged column, a character which is not found in Acianthus and allied genera. On the
other hand, the smooth labellum, devoid of any projections or protuberances beyond
two obscure ridges at the base, and the habit of the plant, point towards the
Acianthineae. A remarkable character, which is not shown by any Acianthus, is that
the flowering-stems often produce offshoots which bear solitary radical leaves. The
petals are much reduced in size, but this peculiarity is approached by some of the New
Caledonian species of Acianthus, although not carried to the same extent. The elongated
finger dike rostellum much resembles that of Stigmatodactylus.
As soon as specimens of Townsonia were examined, it was noticed that it was closely
allied to Acianthus viridis Hook. f. from Tasmania. This led to a careful examination
of the Tasmanian plant, which resulted in proving that it also was a genuine Townsonia,
closely allied to but clearly distinct from the original T. defiexa. Townsonia will there-
fore rank as a typical austral-antarctic genus, with one species — T. defiexa Cheesem. —
confined to the South Island of New Zealand, the other— T. viridis (Hook, f.) Schlechter
— endemic in Tasmania.
T. F. C.
2. Some Constants of Mutton-bird Oil and Fat. By L. Hewgill Smith.
(Journ. Soc. Chem. Industry No. 7. vol. 30, p. 405 : 15th April, 1911.)
The mutton-bird {Oestrelata lessoni), a petrel peculiar to the Antarctic, when dis-
turbed ejects from its nostrils an oil with considerable force. This oil— the first bird-
oil to be put on the market — in colour varies from bright ruby red to straw, with not
unpleasant fishy smell. On treatment with sulphuric acid the ruby colour is destroyed
and straw oil results. At 0° C. the oil solidified to a translucent mass. One specimen
contained 2-23 per cent, free fatty acids (as oleic acid). Constants : Specific gravity,
0-8819-0-8858 at- 15-5° C. ; saponification value, 125-9 ; iodine value (Wijs), 71 per
cent. ; unsaponifiable (alcohols), 36-88 percent. ; melting-point of alcohols, 30-5-31-5° C.
It yields no glycerin. It appears that the oil is not a glyceride, but a liquid wax
resembling arctic sperm-oil to a remarkable degree, and, like it, showing no tendency to
gum. It was suggested in discussion that the oil contains a large amount of cetyl oleate.
The body-fat of the bird, of soft consistency, brown colour, and strong fishy smell, con-
tained 3-5^4-3 per cent, free fatty acids (as oleic acid) ; iodine value (Wijs), 89-1 per
cent. ; unsaponifiable matter. 1-76-2 per cent. ; specific gravity, 0-9351-0-9380 at
15-5° C. ; titre test. 29-4° C.
B. C. A.
3. An Attempt to introduce Olearia semidentata into the British Isles.
By A. A. DDrrien-Smith. (Kew Bulletin, No. 4, pp. 120-126,
8 photos ; 1910.)
A popular account of a short excursion to the Chatham Islands by the author in
quest of living plants. A general account is given of the vegetation of the main island.
Abstracts. 33
Veronica gigantea, 20ft. high, was seen in full flower; its seedlings are noted as being
very different to the mature trees, " the leaves being larger and covered with downy
hairs, while the stems are of a reddish-purple colour." The author considers Plagi-
anthus chathamicus Cockayne distinct from P. betulinus A. Cunn. In some places
Marchantia cephaloscypha covers bog an acre in extent. The vegetation of a sea-cliff
at Te Tuku consisted of Phormium tenax, a long grass (probably Festuca Coxii Hack.),
Astelia nervosa, Veronica chathamica, Geranium Traversii, Aciphylla Dieffenbachii, Senecio
Imitus, S. radiolatus, Myosotidium -nobile, Urtica australis. The Myosotidium, Phormium,
and Aciphylla are threatened with extinction.
L. C.
1. New Zealand Plants. Bv A. A. Dorrien-Smith.. {Gardeners'1 Chronicle,
vol. 49, p. 58; 1911.)
The author brought from New Zealand to England 2,000 plants, comprising 217
species. Of these, he lost 45 species on the voyage. Amongst those landed in good
condition 38 species were new to cultivation in the British Islands. A list of these is
given, and, amongst others, it includes Aciphylla Dieffenbachii, Astelia montana,6 species
of Celmisia (including G. Rutlandi), 3 species of Dracophyllum, Olearia semidentata,
Podocarpus acutifolius, Ranunculus lobulatus, Rubus Barkeri, R. parvus. Veronica Astoni,
and V. Bollonsii. This latter is a species from the Poor Knights Islands, of which the
■reviewer hopes shortly to publish a diagnosis.
L. C.
5. Remarkable Instances of Plant-dispersion. By G. Henslow. (Journal
Royal Horticultural Society, vol. 35, pp. 312-351 ; 1910.)
In this paper the author repeats the assertion that white clover wiped out Phormium
tenax in New Zealand, but that the former was ousted by Hypochaeris radicata ; further,
that the latter in less than three years wholly destroyed excellent pastures and absolutely
displaced every other plant on the ground. Reasons are assigned for this (alleged)
vigour in white clover and other introduced plants, such as — the climate favouring
duration of life ; more than one crop of seeds in a year; scarcity of graminiverous birds.
Further, it is stated that annual weeds which in England would have no chance with
perennials " have spread in inconceivable quantities into the wildest glens, before either
white men or even their cattle and Hocks penetrate their recesses."'
L. C.
6. Olearias in Ireland. By C. F. Ball. {Ga/rdeners' Chronicle, vol. 19,
pp. 52-53 ; 1911.)
An account of the species of Olearia in cultivation at the Glasnevin Botanical
Gardens, Dublin. Eighteen are New Zealand species. Amongst others are 0. chathamica,
0. insignis. O. Lyallii, and O. lacunosa.
L. C.
7. Hybrid Veronicas. By Editor of Gardeners' Chronicle. {Gardeners'
Chronicle, vol. 18, p. 103 ; 1910.)
An account of the following hybrid Veronicas raised by Mr. Lindsay, formerly of
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh : V. x myrtifolia is the result of a cross between
V. Balfouriana { ? ) and V. salicifolia ( <$ ). V. x edinensis had V. Hectori for ? parent
and V. pimelioide-s for 3 parent. The cross is closely allied to V. epacridea, if not
identical.
L. C.
Bv Authority: John Mackay, Govcmmeut'-PrirrttM-, Wellington. — 1911.
[950/7/11—10953
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911
PART II
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
Issued 8th January, 1912.
littgtoit, "$.%.
JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London W.C.
CONTENTS.
PROCEEDINGS.
Wellington Philosophical Society : Meetings, 9th August, 6th September.
Auckland Institute : Meetings, 7th August, 28th August, 2nd October.
Manawatu Philosophical Society : Meetings, 31st August, 2Sth Septem-
ber.
Otago Institute: Meetings, 1st August, 5th September, 3rd October;
Technological Section — Meetings, 18th July, 15th August, 19th Sep-
tember.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : Meetings, 2nd August, 6th Sep-
tember, 4th October.
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute : Meetings, 30th June, 1st Sep-
tember.
PAPERS.
1. Descriptions of some New Zealand Plants. Bv Dr. L. Cockayne,
F.L.S.
2. Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae. By
L. B. Prout; communicated by George Howes, F.E.S.
ABSTRACTS.
1. Marine Algae from the Kermadecs. — A. and E. S. Gepp.
2. Fructification of Macrocystis. — E. J. Hoffman.
3. Studies in Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. — H. M. Hall.
4. Die Geographie der Fame. — H. Christ.
5. Die Gattung Acaena. — G. Bitter.
6. On the Peopling by Plants of the Subalpine River-bed of the Rakaia.
— L. Cockayne.
7. The Hepatics of New Zealand. — L. S. Gibbs.
8. Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie : New Zealand and Adjacent
Islands. — P. Marshall.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911.
PART II.
PROCEEDINGS.
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Fourth Meeting : 9th August, 1911.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about sixty members
and friends present.
New Members. — Captain G. S. Hooper and Mr. J. G. Wilson.
Papers. — 1. " The National Home Reading Union." By Thus.
King, F.R.A.S.
2. ' Immunity; or, How the Body defends itself against its Microbic
Foes.-' By J. M. Mason, M.D., F.C.S., D.P.H. Camb.
'■). "Notes on Salicornia australis." By Miss Cooke, M.A.; com-
municated by Professor Kirk.
4. " Hoisting the Flag at Akaroa : an Incident of 1840." By Miss
E. M. Jacobson, M.A. ; communicated by C. E. Adams.
'). 'Notes on Dragon-flies from the Kermadec Islands." By R. J.
Tillyard, M.A., F.E.S. ; communicated by A. Hamilton.
6. " Longitude of the Hector Astronomical Observatory, Wellington."
Bv C. E. Adams, M.Sc, F.R.A.S.
7. " Wellington Tidal Records." By C. E. Adams, M.Sc, F.R.A.S.
Fifth Meeting : 6th September, 1911.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about fifty members
and friends present.
New Member.— Mr. W. F. Howlett, B.A., Oxon.
Papers. — 1. ' Notes on New Zealand Acarina." By J. B. Gatenby.
This paper comprises descriptions of about fifty New Zealand Acarina, which
belong to Trombidium, Notophallus, Linopodes, Eryihraeus, Bdellus, Anyxtes>, Cytn,
Tyroglyphus, Ixodes, Gamasus, Uropoda, and several other more or less doubtful
40 Proceedings.
genera. As the author intends to leave for England, where the best libraries will
be at his disposal, it was thought better to temporarily withhold publication with
a view to finding out whether any of the species had been described before by Euro-
pean acarologists. Amongst other interesting A carina dealt with in the paper is the
description of an acarid (genus Ixodes) found on the tuatara lizard.
2. ' Account of some Exploration of, and the Discovery of Former
(rlaciation in, the Tararua Ranges." Bv G. L. Adkin.
3. "The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae." Bv B. C. Aston,
F.l.C, F.C.S.
4. "On a Collection of Mallophaga from the Kermadec Islands."
By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc, and Launcelot Harrison ; com-
municated by A. Hamilton.
5. " On the Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence
of their Language.'" By Professor J. Macmillan Brown.
Auckland Institute
41
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
•Second Meeting : 7th August, 1911 .
Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair.
New Members.— Messrs. T. Bassett, A. G. Lunn, W. H. Webbe, W. E.
Woodward.
Lecture. — " Sources of Plague in Auckland, and its Prevention." Bv
R. H. Makgill, M.D.
The lecturer briefly alluded to the history of plague, which he said was the
most anciently known of diseases, the first record being at least four thousand years
old ; and traced the more important epidemics of plague during historic times.
During the nineteenth century, however, the old endemic centres of the East had
become practically free from plague, and the present widespread prevalence of the
disease had been traced to the Chinese province of Yun-nan, in which it appeal's
to be truly endemic. It reached India in 1896, and, favoured by the rapid transit
of modern times, found its way to Australia and New Zealand in 1900. In Auck-
land in the past eleven years there has been twenty certain cases of plague, nine
of them being fatal. The characteristic disappearance of the disease for intervals
manifested itself during that time. In 1901 there was one case, in 1902 none, in
1903 three, in 1904 two, in 1905 and 1906 none, in 1907 two, in 1908 and 1909
none, in 1910 three, and 1911 eight. As plague was usually discoverable in rats in
Sydney, it might reasonably be supposed to have been absent during the intervals,
and to have been reinti-oduced by rodents brought across. Point was lent to this
supposition by the fact that the first case after the last interval occurred in a man
who had been handling goods from Sydney. But until quite recently the examina-
tion of rats had not been sufficiently widespread to make it quite certain that the
disease had not remained in the rats of the locality.
The lecturer pointed out that it was now perfectly well established that the
rat carried the disease from place to place, and that infected rats were always found
to precede cases of human plague. When the disease was once firmly established
among the rats of any city, then the rat-flea became the carrier of the disease
from rat to man. Now, fleas, and to a smaller extent rats, are always much mor6
abundant in summer and autumn than at any other time of the year. Hence we
find that the twenty cases of plague in Auckland had occurred as follows : Five
in March, three in April, seven in May, and five in June. In combating plague,
constant war must be waged against the rat and the flea. One of the first lines of
defence was the water-front ; and the ferro-concrete wharves, as far as they had
been adopted in Auckland, had brought about a great reduction in the rat-popula-
tion. But much remained to be done in the city itself. Eternal vigilance was the
price of immunity from plague. Spasmodic effort could not take the place of con-
tinuous hard work, and hysteria was dangerous. Every one must keep his premises,
and especially his business premises, clean, and encourage others to do the same ;
and care should be taken to elect to the local governing bodies men who would see
that sanitary laws were effective and properly executed.
Third MeetinCx : 28th August, 1911.
Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair.
New Members. — R. Burns, W. Coleman, H. C. Choyce, Bishop
Crossley, G. Dunnett, J. W. Ellis, Dr. W. A. Fairclough, Dr. G. Fenwick,
Rev. H. A. Favell, H. T. Gorrie, J. H. Gunson, H. R, Hesketh, Dr. P. A.
Lindsay, S. Milroy, W. F. Napier, S. J. Nathan, P. Oliphant, A. B.
Roberton, W. Ware, W. S. Whitley, J. W. Wiseman, Captain C. A.
Young.
42 Proceedings.
Lecture.—'1 Heredity." By Professor A. P. W. Thomas, M.A.
The lecturer explained the scientific facts upon which the modern theories of
heredity are based, illustrating his remarks by carefully prepared diagrams and
numerous lantern-slides.
Especial weight was given to the researches of Weismann, and to the totally
new light which the tardy recognition of Mendel's laws had thrown upon the sub-
ject. He then passed on to the subject of eugenics, now becoming so prominent,
and pointed out what could be reasonably expected from it, and what effects of
importance on the physical and mental characters of mankind might be anticipated
if the principle ever came within the range of practical achievement.
A very hearty vote of thanks was passed to Professor Thomas at the close of the
lecture.
Fourth Meeting : 2nd October, 1911.
Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair.
New Members.— W '. E. Arev, W. R. Bloomfield, G. Court, J. Court,
G. Elliott, D. Hay, C. T. Major, L. Myers.
Lecture. — "Whirling Discs and their Uses." By Professor F. D.
Brown, M.A.
In this lecture Professor Brown discussed the principles of gyroscopic motion,
pointing out that the gyroscope, which at one time was regarded as little more than
a scientific toy, though a very interesting one, had now, through the modern
development of mechanism, been found to have many possibilities of application to
ships, motor-cars, aeroplanes, and railways, to say nothing of minor examples. A
great number of experiments with different forms of gyroscopes, &c, were exhibited
to the meeting, and fully explained. A model of the Brennan mono-rail was also
exhibited, and made to travel along a wire stretched across the lecture-room. On
the motion of the President, a vote of thanks was passed to Professor Brown by
acclamation.
Manawatu Philosophical Society. 43
MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Fourth Meeting: Jlxf August, 1911.
Captain Hewitt, R.N., in the chair.
Exhibit. — A fine specimen of volcanic reck brought by the "Terra
Nova" from Mount Erebus, and presented to the Society by Mr. J. J.
Kinsey, was exhibited, and descriptive notes thereon communicated by
Miss Souper were read by the Secretary.
The rock was described as an alkaline basalt or trachydolerite, intermediate in
type between ordinary basalt and phonolite, almost precisely identical in character
and chemical composition with the kenytes of Mount Kenya and the rhomb-porphyries
of .Mount Kilimandjaro recently described by Dr. Finkh.
Paper.-' Memory : What is it? " By Sir Robert Stout.
The paper defined memory as the storing-up of past impressions, including
therein not merely the impressions received by the individual, but those also
inherited from countless generations of ancestors. This was illustrated by instances
of the marvellous instinct shown by insects and larger animals, and also by the
transmission of special talents in particular families, such as those of Bach, Darwin,
and Gregory. Quoting Walt Whitman's saying that " Every hour of light and dark,
and every inch of space, wras a miracle," the speaker laid stress upon the fact that
nature's methods were not only miraculous but very slow, and that any attempt
to unduly hasten them in the desire for progress was sure to end in failure.
On the motion of the Chairman, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the
lecturer.
Fifth Meeting : 28th September, 1911.
Captain Hewitt, R.X., in the chair.
The President announced that at the last meeting of the Council ten
new members were elected; and that, as the alterations in the fire-brigade
building kindly undertaken by the Borough Council were now nearly
completed, he hoped that the Museum would be ready to be opened in
the new premises by the end of October. Mr. Hamilton had very kindly
promised, with the permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs, to
superintend the arrangement of collections; and several firms and offices
had promised valuable additions, illustrating the different forms of local
industry.
Paper. — Mr. J. E. Vernon, M.A., read a paper on " Recent Local
Weather," describing the different instruments belonging to the Society
which had been in his charge for the last four months, and giving
statistics of local rainfall, temperature, barometric pressure, and wind.
44 Proceedings.
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
Fourth Meeting : 1st Atigust, 1911.
Present : Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair, and about twenty
others.
Xew Members. — Dr. K. Church, Messrs. Sydney Beaumont, A. W.
Bethune, A. Davis, and W. Gillanders.
Astronomical Society. — The chairman announced that the Astrono-
mical Society had accepted the proposed terms of amalgamation with the
Institute, and that the Society's members would shortly be elected mem-
bers of the Institute, forming a separate branch in the same way as the
Technological Society had done.
Exhibit. — Mr. D. Tannock exhibited some fine specimens of Primula
sinensis, grown by himself in such a way as to exhibit mendelism. Both
Mr. Tannock and Dr. Benham, in speaking of the exhibit, referred to
the fact that mendelism had been of great service to horticulturists and
agriculturists, instancing several changes that had been brought about
by the application of Mendel's laws.
Payers. — 1. " New Species of Lepidoptera." Bv G. W. Howes,
F.E.S.
2. "On the Larvae and Pupae of some New Zealand Butterflies."
By G. W. Howes, F.E.S.
3. "The Food Value of Kumaras." By Dr. J. Malcolm.
Of the kumara, two-thirds consisted of water ; carbo-hydrates were present in
the kumara to the extent of 19 per cent, of the whole. The sweet taste of the kumara
was due to the presence of a substance which promoted a plentiful flow of saliva,
which converted the starch into sugar. There was only 0'27 per cent, of fat in the
kumara. It was a vegetable that did not keep well. Mould grew quickly, owing to
the presence of sugar ; the ordinary potato was not so affected, owing to the absence
of glucose.
4. " The Application of Phonetics to English Pronunciation," and
" The Question of a New Zealand Dialect." By G. E. Thompson, M.A.
Nearly all of the English dialects could be heard in New Zealand, but people
born in this country and educated in its schools showed a uniformity of pronunci-
ation. New Zealand speech was more like the southern English type, and least like
the Scottish. As the Dominion was only some fifty years old, the difference in speech
was very slight. The chief and noticeable feature was the distinct tendency, when
uttering vowel sounds, to lower the tongue, the result being the expression of more
open vowel sounds and a mispronunciation (in the vowels) of such words as "sea,"
"twelve," "mood," "put." These differences in pronunciation showed what was
probably the beginning of a distinctly New Zealand dialect. In the discussion that
followed Mr. Morrell advocated the inclusion of the study of phonetics in the
curriculum of our training colleges.
Ota go Institute. 45
Fifth Meeting : 5th September, 1911.
Present : Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair, and fifty others.
New Members.— -Messrs. T. B. Hamilton, M.A., B.Sc, C. E. Pfeifer,
R. Price, A. L. Murray, T. Thomson, and the following members of the
Astronomical Society : Professor J. M. E. Gar row, B.A., LL.B., Welling-
ton (life member), Mr. W. H. Price (life member), Rev. Bro. Brady, Rev.
D. Dutton, F.R.A.S., Rev. P. W. Fairclough, F.R.A.S., Messrs. E.
Anscombe, 0. Balk, James Bremner, A. C. Hanlon, J. W. Milnes, H. E.
White, G. R. Hercus, J. Loudon, Tompson Lamb, J. F. Morris, W. G.
Somerville, J. Swann, C. S. Smith, W. S. Wilson, and Mrs. Buckland.
Address. — " Soap-bubbles and the Forces that mould them." Bv
E. E. Stark, M.Am.I.E.E.
The address was illustrated by a very large number of experiments with soap-
films.
Sixth Meeting : 3rd October, 1911.
Present : Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair, and about twenty-five
others.
New Member. — Mr. L. J. Wild, B.A.
Exhibit. — Dr. Benham exhibited a plaster mould and gelatine cast of
a warehou or sea-bream as an illustration of the modern method of
mounting museum specimens of fishes, contrasting it with the result
obtained by the old method of stuffing the dried skins.
Papers. — 1. "Some Rocks of Mount Cargill." By J. A. Bartrum,
M.Sc. ; communicated by Dr. Marshall.
2. "Geology of the Bluff." By L. J. Wild, B.A. ; communicated by
Dr. Marshall.
3. 'Report on Sundry Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands."
By Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.
4. 'Description of Three >sew Species of Lepidoptera." By Alfred
Philpott; communicated by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.
5. " Vascular System of Sipho/iaria obliquata." By A. J. Cottrell,
M.A., M.Sc; communicated by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.
6. " Structure of the Nephridium of the Earthworm Maoridrilus
rosaey Bv Miss G. Cameron, M.Sc; communicated bv Dr. W. B.
Benham, F^R.S.
7. "The Plant Covering of Codfish Island." By D. L. Poppelwell.
Observations on the flora of Codfish and Eugged Islands (Stewart Island) made
by the author on a recent visit there, and a comparison of it with that of Stewart
Island.
8. " The Food Value of Frostfish." By Dr. J. Malcolm.
The waste in frostfish amounts to over 30 per cent. In the remainder the per-
centage of fat varies from 5 to 8 in the flesh of the sides, and rises to over 16 per
cent, in the part surrounding the body cavity. The frostfish must therefore be
classified as one of the less digestible kinds of fish. The amount of protein is about
16 per cent. No glycogen was detected.
9. " An Ancient Maori Stone-quarry." By H. D. Skinner.
A description is given of an ancient tool-manufactory near the Dun Mountain,
in the Upper Maitai Valley, Nelson, and of the processes employed in breaking the
stone and fashioning the tools.
46 Proceedings.
TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.
Third .Meeting : 18th July, 1911.
Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.
Address. — Mr. E. W. Eurkert, District Engineer of the Public Works
Department, gave an address on " The Hapuawhenua Viaduct."
The lecturer, in addition to giving a detailed description of the structure itself,
illustrated by lantern-slides, gave an interesting account of the history and building
■of the viaduct, and of the nature and climate of the Hapuawhenua country.
Eocrth Meeting: 15th August, 1911.
Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.
Address.— " The Stability of Ships." By Mr. H. McRae.
Fifth Meeting: 19th September, 1911
Present : Mr. E. E. Stark (in the chair) and a large number of members.
Lecture. — Professor D. B. Waters : " Coal — its Classification and
Analysis."
In concluding his address, Professor Waters referred to the experiments that
had been going on at St. Louis to determine the best use to which inferior coals
could be put, and to ascertain the relative cost per horse-power generated by coal
and by producer-gas. These experiments were still going on, and in America the
use of gas-engines was rapidly increasing. He thought the Government, through
the Mining Department, should take steps to ascertain what use^ could be made of
■the inferior corI in the Dominion.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
Fourth Meeting : 2nd August, 1911.
Present: Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and eighty others.
New Member. — Mr. 8. S. Blackburne.
Kapiti Island Sanctuary. — The following resolution was carried :
' That the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury desires to express its
cordial approval of the enlightened action of the Government in declaring
Kapiti Island a sanctuary for the birds and animals of New Zealand,
and hopes that the proposal to use it as a holiday resort as reported in
the Lyttelton Times of 1st August is not seriously contemplated. Its
reservation as a sanctuary is already widely known and cordially
approved by naturalists throughout the world, and specially so seeing
that it is ideally situated for the purpose. Its use in the manner pro-
posed not only would inevitably undo all the good which has resulted
from its original reservation, but it would be universally regarded as
a retrograde step, and out of keeping with the admirable policy of the
Government in providing adequately for our native fauna and flora."
Paper. — Observations concerning Evolution derived from Ecological
Studies in New Zealand." By Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L.S.
The paper on which the address was based had been previously circulated
amongst members, as the details were too numerous and technical for submitting to
a mixed audience. The following heads were dealt with : Elementary species,
variation, mutation, epharmony, persistent juvenile forms, hybridization, the
struggle lor existence, distribution of species, and evolution in the genus Veronica.
The address was illustrated by forty lantern-slides.
A critical discussion followed, in which Drs. Hilgendorf and Chilton and
Messrs. Laing and Andersen took part.
Fifth Meeting : 6th September, 1911 .
Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and forty others.
New Member. — Mr. T. D. Burnett.
Addresses. — 1. "Bogs and their Bearing on Climate." By Mr. It.
Speight.
The lecturer gave a resume of the work which has been done recently in Sweden,
Scotland, and the United States in this department of science, and sketched the
general tendency of the conclusions as to the variations of climate since the last
period of glaciation. A number of lantern-slides were shown illustrative of bogs
and peat-deposits in various parts of the world, including New Zealand, and the
lecturer expressed a hope that it might be possible to examine some of our own
bogs by modern methods.
2. 'Modifications of Deep-sea Fish to suit their Environment."
By Mr. Edgar P. Waite.
The lecturer gave a most interesting account of the modifications of deep-sea fish
to adapt themselves to their condition of life, and specially to the effects of pres-
sure in the abyssal depths, and to the absence of light. ' A number of excellent
48 Proceedings.
slides showing the grotesque varieties of form and the lures with which these fish
attract their prey, and the modifications of the mouth and stomach to deal with it
when caught, were displayed on the screen.
Papers. — 1. " A Redescription of Aegaeonichthys appeal." By Edgar
R. Waite.
2. " Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea." By
Dr. Charles Chilton.
Exhibit. — A specimen of Veronica lycopodwides w~as exhibited and
described by Mr. R. Nairn, who said that the specimen under consider-
ation had been grown in a greenhouse from cuttings, and had put forth
not only larger leaves than it usually showed when growing wild, but
also the leaves of the ordinary form. This he attributed to the influence
of the warm, still, and damp atmosphere of the greenhouse.
Sixth Meeting : Jfih October, 1911.
Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and seventy-five
others.
New Members. — Misses Sanders and Izard, and Mr. Henry Suter.
Address. — " Profit-sharing." By Mr. A. W. Beaven.
The lecturer in his introductory remarks said that neither employer nor em-
ployee was satisfied with the present wages system, but he was not in a position to
formulate a remedy for the defects of that system. The lecturer dealt with the
nature of capital and with the evolution of the modern industrial system. He said
that socialism, co-operation, and profit-sharing had been suggested as remedies for
the present defects. His personal opinion was that though compulsory socialism
might be successful in equalizing the division of products, it is certain that there
would be less products to divide than at present. Co-operation had failed generally
because of the rarity of organizing and directing ability. Profit-sharing was a modi-
fication of the wages system which made the worker a partner to a specific extent
in the profits realized.
The speaker gave instances of cases in which profit-sharing had been tried in
industries. He gave full details of the following cases— the French house of Le
Clair, of the Pillsbury Flour-mills in Minnesota, of the South Metropolitan Gas
Company in London — and brief reference to numerous other cases where the scheme
had been successful, as well as to others where it had been unsuccessful. In con-
clusion, the lecturer said that the examples he has quoted led him to consider that
profit-sharing was practicable and advisable. It was necessary that any arrange-
ment made should have an element of permanency, and should not be dependent
upon the arbitrary action of the employer. Every system should be suited to the
business to which it was applied. The ideal trade-union would be that in which
employer and employed were united to advance the interests of the industry by
which they earned their livelihood.
At the conclusion of the address Dr. Hight pointed out that in estimating the
effects of profit-sharing they must inquire whether the conditions prevalent in any
two businesses were quite the same. In some cases success was partly due to the
business having a partial monopoly, as in gas companies, and in other cases to special
organizing ability. He also pointed out that there had been a steady decline in
profit-sharing in England, and that the method was only a palliative and gave no
ultimate solution of the labour problem
The lecturer was accorded a hearty vote of thanks.
Papers.— 1. " New Plant-habitats," Part VII. By Dr. L. Cockayne.
2. "Descriptions of New Species of Plants." By Dr. L. Cockayne.
(See page 50.)
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute. 49
HAWKE'S^BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
Third Meeting : 30th June, 1911 .
The President, Mr. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S., in the chair.
Papers. — 1. " The Haslemere Educational Museum." By Mr. F.
Hutchinson, jun.
This paper outlined the principles on which the Museum, founded by the author's
uncle, was based. Geological and historical specimens, books, pictures, and other
articles were arranged chronologically. A herbarium and a vivarium formed part
of the Museum, and in these fresh specimens from the surrounding district were
kept according to the season. Specimens were for sale. Questions to encourage
thought were on the labels — e.g., " What is the best quality of the bird? "
2. ' Moa-remains from Wainui Beach." By W. Townson ; com-
municated by J. Niven, M.A., M.Sc.
As the result of the interest aroused by these papers, a number of gentlemen
volunteered to rearrange and classify the objects in the Napier Museum if the
Borough Council, the controlling authority, would agree. The Borough Council
were to be asked to help in the matter of making the Museum more up to date.
Finances. — Mr. Hill was appointed to interview the member for the
district with regard to more financial help for the Xew Zealand Insti-
tute.
Fourth Meeting : 1st September, 1911.
The President, Mr. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S., in the chair.
Xew Members.— \N. Scott, W. Murphy, W. Morris, W. Smith, B.A.
Papers. — 1. ' Pore Space and the Influence of Surface Tension on the
Moisture in the Soil." By W. Morris.
This paper dealt principally with the relation between volume and surface of
particles of different kinds of soil, and the effect of the comparatively enormous
surface of the soil-particles on the passage of water through the soil.
2. 'Fungi and their Kelation to Domestic Life." By E. G. Loten.
Illustrated. (To be continued.)
50 Papers.
PAPERS
1. Descriptions of some New Species of New Zealand Plants.
By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S.
\_Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th September, 1911.}
1. Nertera Balfouriana Cockayne sp. nov.
Herba perennis, glabra. Caulis repens, gracilis, ramosus, radicans.-
Folia late oblonga v. subrotundata, 2'5— 3 mm. longa, 2-2'."> mm. Lata,
petiolata, basi rotund at a v. cuneata ; petiolus dire. 2"5 mm. longus, supra
canaliculatus. Flores non visi. Drupa piriformis, 7-9 nun. lotiga,
aurantiaca.
South Island: Canterbury — Rakaia, Ashburton, and Rangitata
Valleys, at altitude of about 600-800 m., R. M. Laing and L. C. ; Wai-
makariri Valley, at about same altitude, L. C. ; neighbourhood of Mount
Cook, D. Petrie. Grows in Sphagnum bogs.
N. Balfouriana is at once distinguished from all the other New Zen-
land species by its large pyriform orange-coloured drupes, which are
produced in such profusion as to quite hide the leaves. The plant forms
close patches on Sphagnum cushions, the stems and leaves being fre-
quently hidden amongst the moss. When in full fruit it is a beautiful
object, and should be a rival of N. depressa Banks and Sol. as a plant
for rock-gardens. The fruits are ripe during March and April.
The plant is named in honour of Professor I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S.,
who, as Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, lias
done much to make known the horticultural capabilities of the ,Xew
Zealand alpine flora.
2. Veronica BoUonsii Cockayne sp. nov.
Frutex erectus, glaberrimus, circ. 1*5 m. altus, multiramosus ramis
teretibus. Folia obovato-oblonga, glabra, lucida, 2-6 cm. longa,
1-3 cm. lata. Racemi folia superantes, 10"5 cm. longi, vix densiflori,
rhachibus pedicellisque brevissime pubescentibns ; pedicelli 3 mm.
longi. Flores palide lilacini. Calyx profunde 4-partitus, corollae
tubum fere aequans, 3-3' 2 mm. longus; lobi anguste lanceolati, acuti,
ciliolati. Corollae tubus 3-4 mm. longus, fauce pubescens ; lobi ovati.
obtusi vel subacuti, 4 mm. longi. Capsula ovata, acuta 41 mm. longa.
North Island : Auckland— The Poor Knights Islands, L. C. Blooms
in cultivation in the neighbourhood of Christchurch in April and later.
but the same autumn-blooming plant may flower again in the succeeding
summer.
In Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 354, I referred, but with some
measure of doubt, this plant to V. macroura Hook, f., for my material,
with only fragmentary racemes many months old, was insufficient for
accurate determination. Since that time, plants that I raised from
cuttings have bloomed both in the garden of Mr. Lough, Linwood, and
at Canterbury College, and have proved that the plant is a species
quite distinct from any other in New Zealand. It is at once separated
from V. macroura Hook. f. by the erect habit, glossy somewhat dark-
green glabrous leaves with a" subapiculate apex, much larger flowers
Papers. 51
which are not crowded very closely, glabrous calyx except for scanty
cilia on the margin almost equalling the corolla-tube, and ovate obtuse
or subacute corolla-segments 4 mm. long as opposed to the oblong ones
2 mm. long rounded at the apex of V. macroura. The season of flower-
ing is altogether different. Whether V. Bollonsii is identical with the
Whangarei plant found by Colenso and referred by Hooker to
V . macrotira I do not know. This latter species, in my estimation, is
found only in the East Cape district, the var. dubia Cheesem. being
a good species as well as the unnamed plant growing in the neighbour-
hood of Wellington, and which I followed Hooker in referring to
V. macroura, but considered distinct enough to warrant a varietal name
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 361). I also consider V. Cookiana Colenso
as distinct from V. macroura.
V . Bollonsii is dedicated to Captain J. Bollons, to whom not only New
Zealand botany, but zoology also, owes much.
3. Veronica Dorrien-Smithii Cockayne sp. nov.
Frutex parvus paido ramosus, ramulis ± incano-pubescentibus.
Folia sessilia, oblonga, elliptico-oblonga vel elliptico-lanceolata, circ.
5-6 cm. longa, supra glabra, subtus ad costam pubescentia. Racemi
folia aequantes vel paulo superantes, minute pubescentes. Calyx brevis,
profunde 4-partitus, T9 mm. longus; lobi late ovati, acuti vel apiculati.
ciliati. Corollae tubus 2*5-2*8 mm. longus, fauce pubescens; lobi
obovati, 2*8 mm. longi. Ovarium glabrum ; stylus vix exsertus. Cap-
sula late ovata, 4 mm. longa, calycem duplo excedens.
Chatham Island : Growing on peaty ground at margin of Lake Tekua
Taupo, at an altitude of 240 m. Herb. Cockayne No. 8003. Flowers in
December and January ; seed ripe in February and March,
V. Dorrien-Smithii is allied to J*. Dieffenbachii Benth., but is a
much smaller plant, and though the branches are straggling they are
not widely divaricating. It differs also in the hoary pubescent more
slender stems, broader light-green not whitish-green leaves, the very small
bracteoles and much shorter racemes. It is a variable plant, but it
does not seem to pass into V. Dieffenbachii. The stems may be con-
spicuously hoary or almost glabrous. In one example the leaves measure
9 cm. long by 3' 2 cm. broad, in another they are 5 cm. long and 2*8 cm.
broad with internodes 2*5 cm. long. The flowers are sometimes lavender
at first, then fading to white, or they may be white from the beginning.
A plant growing under the waterfall at Te Awatapu is so distinct
as to merit a varietal name if it is constant from seed. The stems are
slender and straggling. The leaves are narrower than the type, darkish-
green, 5*5 cm. long and 1cm. broad; the midrib is purple; the raceme
slender, half as long again as the leaves, with the flowers rather distant;
the pedicels and base of the calyx dark red-purple and the stigma
hardly exserted. The flowers are lilac, changing to white. The plant
is in cultivation in my garden, and there is a specimen, No. 8005, in
my herbarium.
The species is called after Captain A. A. Dorrien Smith, D.S.O., who
recently collected what I take to be a form in Chatham Island, and who
likewise is paying great attention to the cultivation in England of New
Zealand trees and shrubs.
4. Celmisia lanceolata Cockayne sp. nov.
Herba perennis Celmisiae coriaceae habitu. Folia ensiformia vel
lineari-lanceolata, circ. 24-28 cm. hmga, 2-2*6 cm. lata, acuta, rigida,
2— Proc, pt. ii.
52 Papers.
coriacea, margine valde recurvo, supra longitudinale sulcata, glauca,
cuticula pellucida vestita, subtus dense sericeo-tomentosa ; nervus medius
supra luteo-aurantiacus, prope basim 3—5 mm. latus, subtus carinatus.
Scapi compressi vel teretes, circ. 32 cm. longi, niveo-lanati ; bractae
numerosae, magnae, ensiformes, scapo adpressae. Capitulum 7*7 cm.
diamet. ; involucri squamae lineares, acuminatae, scariosae, brunneae
ad basim carnosae. Flosculi radii plurimi, angusti, 3"6 cm. longi.
Achenium minute pubescens.
South Island : Southland — Longwood Range near summit, but not
common, J. Young! H. Reichel ! Flowers in January.
Celmisia lanceolata is intermediate in character between C. coriacea
Hook. f. and C. Armstrongii Petrie. It is best distinguished by the
large heads, but not so large as reached by C. coriacea, the long narrow
rays, the stiff woolly scapes with many leaf-like ensiform bracts, the long
dull glaucous or yellowish-green linear-lanceolate leaves in erect rosettes
with a conspicuous yellow or even orange midrib and widely recurved
margin, the broad pale leaf-sheaths, and the very close silvery tomentum.
The scape when compressed is about 6 mm. broad ; it is densely
woolly with long white matted hairs. The bracts are ensiform, concave
on the upper surface, about 11cm. long by 1cm. wide, pale yellowish-
green with a brownish-yellow midrib. The involucral bracts are green
at the fleshy base but brown elsewhere, ciliate, more or less glabrous else-
where, and about 2-3 cm. long and 3 mm. wide.
2. Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae; with
Description of a New Species.
By L. B. Prout.
Communicated by George Howes, F.E.S.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 6th June, 1911.]
The following extracts from the letters of Mr. L. B. Prout are of con-
siderable interest to students of Lepidoptera in New Zealand, as several
disputed points are settled here : —
Xanthorhoe cinerearia Dbld.
The large form is rightly semisignata Walk., and is a true Xanthorhoe
(discocellular veins of the hindwing simple). Its antennae have about
28 segments pectinated.
Synonyms : Xanthorhoe semisignata Walk. = semilisata Walk. =
corcularia Guen. = dissociata Walk. = punctilineata Walk.
The small form is cinerearia Dbld., but is a Larentia (discocellulars
triangulate), and has about 22 segments pectinated.
Synonyms : Larentia cineararia Dbld. = diffusaria Walk. = infusata
Walk. = invexata Walk. — inoperata Walk. = infantaria Guen. = ado-
nata Feld.
Larentia farinata Warr.
L. farinata is of a more unicolorous slaty grey (not brownish-grey)
than cineararia, and is larger and more weakly marked. About 21 seg-
ments of the antennae are pectinated. Its proximal areole is minute,
but this may vary.
An excellent description, from Wellington specimens, is given in
" Novitates Zoologicae," vol. 3, p. 388.
Papers. 53
Xanthorhoe lucidata Walk.
The insect identified by Hudson as A", lucidata is not the typical
lucidata of Walker. The true lucidata is smaller in size, lines less
straight, colours more varied, &c. Hudson's species agrees exactly with
veinapuncta Walk. The whitish dots on the veins are quite characteristic
of the species.
Lythria euclidiata Guen.
The large form without any red on the underside is L. euclidiata Gn. ;
the smaller, which answers to Hudson's description and figure, is
aatapurrha Butl. This latter should be known as Arcteothes catapyrrha
until it can be proved that the two strikingly different forms are con-
specific.
Dichromodes petrina Meyr.
Petrina sinks to an older name — sphaeriata Feld. — which was un-
known to (or unidentified by) Meyrick, through Felder having assigned
it not only to the wrong genus, but to the wrong subfamily, and given
rather a poor figure of it.
E pirranthis alectoraria Walk.
Sufficiently distinct from the true Epirranthis to form a new genus
under the name Xynonia (Prout) ; and included in alectoraria are
apparently two species — Xynonia alectoraria, the long-winged species
with the margins irregular; Xynonia ustaria (Prout), the stumpier-
winged with strong angle (almost a tooth) in middle of outer margin of
forewing and with strong dentate margin of hindwing.
E pirranthis hemipteraria Gn.
This should be Xyridacma hemipteraria : the singular form of the
hindwing renders it convenient to keep it separate from Xynonia.
Drepanodes muriferata Walk.
Drepanodes is a South American genus, and, as your New Zealand
muriferata is probably structurally distinct therefrom, it seems prema-
ture to merge them, so advise keeping to the generic name Gargaphania
Walk, expressly founded for muriferata.
Leptorneris rubraria Dbld.
This should be Acidalia rubraria. The genus has been known by
quite a number of synonyms (Leptorneris, Craspedia, Emmitis, &c), but
Acidalia is the oldest name for it.
Selidosema .
Selidosema Hubner is a European genus, and probably does not
occur in New Zealand. Meyrick (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 17, p. 65) made
a genus Gelonia for S. panagrata and S. dejectaria. This had better
stand provisionally.
It would be well to use Pseudocoremia Butl. for sua vis, lupinata,
rudisata (" rudiata " is an orthographical alteration of Hudson's),
melinata, ochrea, and allies — apparently a quite compact group.
Sestra humeraria and Sestra flexata Walk.
Hudson has unfortunately transposed these two. It is really Butler's
fault, at least in part, and shows the mischief of premature lumping.
54 Papers.
Hudson had to separate the two again, and, of course, could not consult
Walker's types.
The species figured by Hudson (pi. ix, fig. 37) as flexata is really
S. hnmeraria = obtusaria = obtruncata = punctilinearia. The true
flexata is figured by him on pi. x, figs. 1 and 2, as humeraria.
Larentia exoriens Prout nov. sp.
J . 26-35 mm. Face pale ochreous, strongly tinged with red.
Palpus the same, reddest on the outer side. Pectinations rather long.
Legs pale ochreous, spotted with fuscous, more or less red on upper side.
Vertex and front of thorax sometimes tinged with red. Abdomen with
paired dark dorsal dots, which are seldom distinct. Wings shaped as
in aegrota Butl., pale ochreous; basal and median areas of forewing —
and especially costa as far as subcostal vein — sometimes flushed with
rosy rufous. Forewing sometimes with an indistinct curved rufous line
near base; other lines rufous-grey, arranged nearly as in aegrota; sub-
basal pair oblique (almost parallel with termen), sometimes curved, some-
times rather sinuous, scarcely ever strongly bent basewards near costa
as in aegrota; median series of four rather variable, the first usually
crossing the black cell-spot, the third weak sometimes lost in a greyish
suffusion, the fourth dentate usually projecting rather more before and
behind the radials than is normal in aegrota; a pale band distally to
the line, usually bisected by a very feeble grey line; subterminal area
usually more or less shaded with grey, at least to the extent of some
spots before a pale vague lunulate subterminal line; termen marked
with paired black dots; fringe slightly dark-marked, generally more
feebly than in aegrota. Hindwing with or without black cell-spot, no
other distinct markings, faint traces of those on the underside; termen
and fringe as in forewing. Underside pale ocherous, in fresh speci-
mens usually strongly flushed with rufous, especially costal terminal areas
of forewing and whole of hindwing; basal area, especially of forewing,
more greyish, both wings with dark post-median line usually pretty well
defined, sometimes dark-shaded proximally, usually pale-margined
distally; in well-marked individuals with a distinct pale subterminal
line; hindwings also sometimes with one or two dark lines in basal area;,
cell-spots present ; termen as above.
Type (G. Howes, 15th March, 1910) in coll. L. B. Prout.
Glenorchv (March, 1910)— G. B. Longstaff; G. Howes. Nevis (24th
March, 1911), Kinloch (20th March, 1911)— G. Howes.
Bv the kindness of Dr. Longstaff and Mr. Howes I am enabled to
describe this species from nine males, including two or three in ex-
cellent condition and others little inferior. When worn or faded it
is exceedingly similar to L. aegrota, but, apart from the points indicated
above, it may be known by the absence of strong fuscous clouding on
the underside, and by two structural characters : the antenna! pectina-
tions are appreciably longer (one-sixth or one-seventh as long again),
and the posterior part of the cell of hindwing is considerably less pro-
duced, vein 5 arising near the cell-spot.
Note. — I use the name Larentia Frietschke for Xanthorhoe. Sec-
tion 2 of Turner (Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xvi, new series, p. 274):
" hindwings with vein 5 from below centre of discocellular, which is
angled."
Here belong of New Zealand species — L. semifissata Walk., chlamy-
dota Meyr., beata Butl., semisignata Walk., farinata Warr., and doubt-
less a few that I cannot at the present moment compare.
Abut/acts, <%
ABSTRACTS.
1. Marine Algae from the Kermadecs. By A. and E. S. Gepp.
(Journal of Botany, vol. 49, pp. 17-23; 1911.)
A list of marine Algae collected by Mr. R. B. Oliver on the Kermadec Islands
in 1908. The Kermadecs are washed by oceanic currents from the north and
south-west, the latter being the stronger. This is plainly reflected by the algal flora,
which is principally New Zealand. The following is the complete list. The dis-
tribution of the species is enclosed in brackets.
Ulva Lactura L. (general) ; U. laetevirens Aresh. (South Australia, Tasmania) :
Enteromorpha cornpressa C4rev. (Atlantic and Pacific, both north and south) ; Clado
phora fusca Martens (Borneo) ; Vaucheria sp. ; Caulerpa racemosa var. uvifera
Weber v. Bosse, forma intermedia W. v. B. (Indian and Pacific Oceans, West
Indies); Codium tomentosum, Stackh. (general); Durvillea sp. ; Hormosira
Banksii Dene. (Australia, Tasmania, New Zeland) ; Carpophyllum maschalocarpum
Grev. (New Zealand) ; G. elongatum comb. nov. = Cystophora elongata Dickie (New
Zealand) ; G. Phyllanthus Hook and Harv. (New Zealand) ; 0. plumosum J. Ag.
(New Zealand); Taenia australasica J. Ag. (Victoria); Gymnosorus nigrescent
J. Ag. (North, South, and West Australia) ; Dictyota prolifirans A. and E. S: Gepp
(New South Wales and Queensland) ; Sargassum fissifolium J. Ag. (Queensland) ;
Chantransia sp. ; Galaxaura sp. ; Zanardinia marginata J. Ag. (North and South
Atlantic, North and South Pacific. Indian Ocean) ; Gelidimn longipes J. Ag. (New
Zealand) ; Pterocladia capillacea Born. (Atlantic, Mediterranean, Cape of Good
Hope, Indian Ocean, China, Japan, Australasia) ; Gracilaria confervoides J. Ag.
(Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans) ; Laurencia Forsteri J. Ag. ? (South and West
Australia); Plocamium brachiocarpum Kiitz (New Zealand); Martensia elegans
Her. (South Africa, West Australia, New South Wales); Nitopliyllum decumbens
(New Zealand) ; Delisea pulchra Mont. (Eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zea-
land) ; Asparagopsis Sandfordiana Harv. (Western Australia and Queensland);
Euzoniella incisa Falk. (South-west Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand) ; Spongo-
rlomium Brownianum De Toni (West Australia) ; Peysionnellia rubra J. Ag.
(Adriatic, Polynesia) ; Melobesia sp. ; Amphiroa anceps Dene. (Norfolk Island) :
Gheilosporum elegans Aresch. (New Zealand, New South Wales) ; Gorallina
officinalis L. (general) : Coralhna sp. ; C. Guvieri Lamx. (South Australia, Tas-
mania)
L. C.
2. Fructification of Macrocystis. By E. J. Hoffman. (Univ. of
California Publications in Botany, vol. 4, pp. 151-158, pi. 1;
1911.)
A quite different result is arrived at to that of Smith and Whiting, for the
specimens examined show that the sorus is not confined to the newly formed bladder-
l^ss leaves alone, and also that the reproductive bodies appear in continuous instead
of disconnected layers only in the furrows of the leaves. It is suggested that the
authors named above worked with an entirely different species.
L*. L- .
3. Studies in Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. By H. M. Hall. (Univ.
of California Publications in Botany, vol. 4, pp. 1-71, pis. 1-11:
1910.)
\v account with descriptions and remarks of a number of exotic ornamental
trees and shrubs cultivated in California. The following are the New Zealand
species : Pittosporum tenuifolium, P. crassifolium, P. Ralphu, P. eugenioide*.
Leptospermum scoparium, L. ericoides, Me.trosiderog robusla, M. tomentosa.
3— Proc, pt. ii.
56 Abstracts
A yellow-flowered form of Pittosporum tenuifolium has appeared at Berkeley,
growing in a row of normal black-flowered plants. This form is unknown in ^sew
Zealand, but according to Oheeseman yellow-flowered forms are known in other
dark-flowered species. „
Li. L/.
4. Die Geographie der Fame. By H. Christ. Pp. ;br>7, figs. 130 (mostly
from original photographs), and 3 maps. Gustav Fischer.
Leipzig; 1910.
This work, from the hand of a. most eminent pteridologist, is obviously of
special interest to New Zealand biologists. It is divided into a general introduc-
tion and two parts, the first (pp. 0-136) being ecological, and the second (pp. 139-333)
floristic. There is also a bibliography, which does not aim at completeness, of 18V
titles arranged according to the various fern floras and their divisions, together with
those dealing with general plant-geography, general works on ferns, and studies
on special ferns and groups. The illustrations show both individual plants and
fern-associations. Fig. 124, entitled Leptopteris superba, taken by Cockayne, is
really Polystichum vest it am, and the locality is not Stewart Island, but forest at
hase of Big Ben, Canterbury.
In the introduction it is pointed out that the general impression that ferns.
through ease of distribution by their spores, are more readily spread than flowering-
plants, and have a wider distribution, is not the case. Thirty years' study of fern
material from all over the globe has convinced the author that, in general, the dis
tribution of ferns goes parallel with that of phanerogams. Where endemism is
strong for the latter, so too is it with the accompanying ferns.
The ecological section is brimful of interest for New Zealand botanists, and
requires close attention; a brief summary would be of no value. Many New Zea-
land species and genera are mentioned, while the ferns of other regions frequent 1\
exhibit parallel structure. Ferns, as a whole, are considered mesothermous hygro-
phytes and xerophytes.
Part II, dealing with fern floras, concerns students of bio-geography in general.
Certain fundamental principles and matters are first explained — e.g., endemism,
which may be recent or ancient, as in the case of the New Zealand Loxsoma, with its
sole relatives two species of Loxsomopsis of Central and South America; numerical
'.elation of ferns to seed-plants in the different floral regions, and amongst other
details it is shown that out of the 149 genera of ferns only thirty-three do not occur
in the tropical forest-region, and of these Doodia, Loxsoma, Leptopteris, and Toden
are confined to the South Temperate Zone; the fern-areas, which are, on the whole,
more extensive than those of phanerogams, but yet a similar local endemism occurs
in both classes ; the cosmopolitan ferns, of which there are twelve well-defined
(though it may be polymorphic) species, which occur with a few trifling exceptions
over the whole globe*; pantropic ferns; the northern circumpolar extension of
terns, the author being of opinion that a backward current of species is moving
northwards from a Tertiary haven of refuge for the forest-ferns in South Chinn.
the basal Himalayas, and Mexico ; the arctic-alpine element, together with relics
from the glacial period, but these are much fewer than are the flowering-plants
of that character ; and, finally, discontinuous areas of distribution, of which the
following examples concern New Zealand : Blechnum Fraseri (New Zealand and
Philippines), B. Patersoni, Gleichenia dicarpa, and other ferns of the Australasian
flora, which, in common with the phanerogams, Spinifex, Melaleuca, and Casuarina.
extend to the mountains or the strand of Malaya, and Todea barbara of New Zea
land, Australia, and South Africa.
The distribution of certain genera is considered in detail : that of Ophioglossum ,
Botrychium, and Gleichenia alone concerns New Zealand. The forms of Ophio-
glo8sum are ill equipped for wide distribution, since they spread rather by a feeble
vegetative increase than by their scanty spores. Their universal but quite local
occurrence — for they are frequently isolated by wide tracts — together with their
small amount of variation, is. according to the author, the greatest puzzle in the
geography of ferns. In the far south of Australia and New Zealand, and in
Argentina, South Chile, and Patagonia, the little northern species Botrychium
lunaria occurs — an arctic footstep in the snbantarctic ! Between Ophioglossum and
Botrychium s fundamental distinction exists, the former being tropical-cosmopolitan.
* The following are absent in}N>w Zealand: Adumtum capillus ven«ri$, ! Pt-erix cretico. Dryopleri?
lilixmiK. Oxmunia regali*.
Abstracts. 57
but also mesothermous, and the latter boreal, but endowed with a strong power of
expansion. Gleichenia is abundant in Tertiary rocks of Europe in its subgenera
Mertensia and Eugleichenia, but the ice age drove it far to the south. The retreat
of a Tertiary genus into the far oceanic south, with its insular climate, and into the
tropical mountains, is most remarkable.
The author divides the earth, so far as ferns are concerned, into twelve floral
regions, of which the Australian New Zealand is one. The latter includes the
rain-forest region of eastern Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Central
Australia is of no moment for ferns, and northern Australia comes into the Malayan
region. The boundary between the two fern floras extends from King Sound along
the north coast to the east coast, and thence through Queensland to the tropic of
Capricorn, beyond which, southwards, the Malayan element gradually fades away.
As for New Zealand, to quote the author's words, "The fern-world is not only
one of the most luxuriant and largest, but floristically one of the most interesting.
Tt is a little world of ferns in itself, where almost all the genera of tropical and
temperate ferns are to be found." A brief review of the species and genera is
given, and their most important growth-forms; the presence of an endemic species
of the tropical genus Lygodium is considered very remarkable. The author con-
cludes : "It would be profitable to stay longer with this magnificent flora, which,
though it is not the expression of a maximum hygrothermous forest climate, is
easily the ideal fern climate of the present day, and plainly shows the optimum
average conditions for the well-being of ferns."
The interesting question of the circumpolar extension of the Australian-New
Zealand fern flora is discussed. The special group which ma}', in a certain sense,
be called "antarctic" is not at all of a boreal-arctic character, but rather of a
temperate to a subtropical character. Neither are the species analogous with either
arctic phanerogams or even antarctic with the highly characteristic cushion form
of these latter. First come six species of Bhchnum, two of Polystichum, two of
Polypodium, Hymenophyllum ferrugineum,, Asplenium obtusatum,, and Schizo' u
fistulosa. Also Todaea comes here, with its distribution in Australia, New Zealand,
and South Africa. All the above are common to Australia - New Zealand, South
America with Juan Fernandez, and in part South Africa. H'ypolepis ruguloaa juay
be also included (New Zealand, Reunion, Tristan d'Acunha, St. Helena, Juan
Fernandez). The genus Dirhsonia in closely related species extends from the Aus-
tralasian floral region to oceanic Malaya, Juan Fernandez, and St. Helena. Then
there is Schizaea, the most scattered, however, of all these genera.
The distribution of the above species may be explained on the supposition of a
Tertiary or yet older region lying in the far south, whence they, in common with
so many flowering-plants of the same area, extended radially. That the region
in question was both ancient and warm is proved by the frondose structure and
stems of the larger and the delicacy of the smaller ferns, Schizaea of Juncus form
excepted. This element is a relic of a more extensive southern flora which dates
from the Tertiary, or earlier, and which now remains on its small New Zealand-
Australian area, thanks to the climatic conditions persisting that it requires.
Further, in discussing the origin of the antarctic element of the south Chilian
flora the author brings more facts in favour of an antarctic Tertiary centre of
distribution, which is supported, moreover, by the additional fact of the presence
of several Tertiary fossil ferns from Seymour Island which are related to, if not
identical in some cases with. South American species.
L. C
5. Die Gattung Acaena. By G. Bitter. (Bibliotheca Botanica, Heft 74,
pp. 336, pi. 38, figs. 98. Stuttgart, 1910-11.)
This voluminous and most painstaking work consists of two parts, the one
general and introductory, and the other systematic and floristic. The author has
not confined his studies to herbarium material of wild plants, but has searchingly
examined the garden forms of Europe, especially those cultivated in the Bremen
Botanical Garden, of which he is the director. These horticultural studies have
led to the important discovery, first, of undoubted hybrids, and, secondly, of two
cases of mutation. The first of these mutants arose from Acaena ova'li folia E.
and Pav. in the botanic garden of Christiania, and the plant is described as subsp.
glabricaitlis ; the second originated in the botanic garden of Bremen itself from
a plant of A. sericea Jacq. f. var. gracilis Bitter, which had been in cultivation for
many years.
58 Abstracts
Chapter 11 deals with the principles of a natural arrangement of the species
within the genus, and in Chapter III the importance of the different forms of
hairs is considered from both the taxonomic and ecological standpoints. Chapter IV
deals with seedling forms, those of six New Zealand members of the genus being
described at length. The occurrence of long, many-celled, thin-walled hairs in
certain early seedlings, but which are absent in the adults, is noted as requiring
special investigation.
Chapter V deals with the plant-geography of the genus. The question as to
whether it is primarily subantarctic or the contrary is discussed, and. on the assump-
tion that certain characters are older than others, a pica is established for a northern
rather than a southern origin. But. on the other hand, it is shown how the pre-
sent extensive occurrence of species not only in subantarctic South America, but
throughout the subantarctic zone as a whole, together with New Zealand and pa its
of Australia, supports the theory of a southern origin.
Certain cases of discontinuous distribution are cited, especially that of the
section Acrobyssinoideae, one species of which .4. tasmanica Bitter, is endemic in
Tasmania, but all the other species occur in the Chilian Andes from lat. 39'5° south
to Cape Horn and South Georgia. A. californica Bitter, endemic in California,
belongs to a section not otherwise extending north of central Chile and Patagonia.
The occurrence of local forms is much commoner than has been thought hitherto,
especially on the isolated subantarctic islands. This discounts considerably the
general view that the supposed wide area of certain species was due to carriage
of the fruits with their hooked barbs by birds. At the same time, the author con-
siders the occurrence of closely related species in distant localities due to bird-
carriage, and cites a Sandwich Island species, with its close I'elatives in south and
central Chile, and the Acrobyssinoideae of the Magellan region and Tasmania, but
absent in New Zealand. But such distribution was not frequent enough to hinder
the evolution of many local forms.
It is a remarkable fact that the New Zealand species of Acaena possess the
following peculiarities not present in members of the genus elsewhere : (1.) A
stunted habit of growth, although their foreign allies are robust and large-leaved —
as, e.g., the New Zealand forms of the polymorphic A. Sanguisorbae Vahl as com-
pared with the Australian, and the three new species formerly referred to A .
adscendens Vahl in New Zealand in comparison with the true species of that
name and A. laevigata (Ait.) Bitter of South America. Nor can the alpine climate
be responsible for the marked exhibition of this growth-form in the endemic New
Zealand section Microphyttae, since the Chilian Andean species show no such
character. (2.) The brownish colour of the leaves in certain varieties of the
Sanguisorbae group and in .4. microphylla Hook, f., and such colouring is present
in members of other families of New Zealand alpine plants. Grey-coloured leaves,
arising either through a covering of wax or through air-spaces between the cells,
is another characteristic, but there are Chilian examples of similar phenomena.
It would serve no purpose to draw up a synopsis of the author's arrangement
of the New Zealand species. A really critical study of his work is demanded on
this point. Here only some general conclusions are noted regarding the limitations
of species, important alterations, and so on.
First, it must be pointed out that a most comprehensive view is taken as to
the species themselves, so that the polymorphic species are groups which do not
exist at all as true entities. These species are subdivided into smaller but still
comprehensive groups as subspecies, these into varieties which are the true entities of
the flora, and these occasionally into forms.
A subspecies of A. ovina A. Cunn. is created called nanella Bitter, based on
specimens sent by Cockayne to Berlin as introduced and collected on the Canter-
bury Plains, the author considering the stunted habit of specific importance.
Acaena adscendens Vahl, hitherto supposed to extend to New Zealand, is
restricted to plants of the Magellan region and Kerguelenland, while the New Zea-
land forms referred to A. adscendens are treated by the author as three distinct
species — A. saccaticupula Bitter, A. hirsutula Bitter, and A. fissistipula Bitter, the
two latter being closely related, but the former coming into a different subsection
allied to that containing A. adscendens. Varieties are also described of all three
species.
Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl is restricted to Australian, Tasmanian, and New
Zealand plants, the Tristan d'Acunha plant being referred to A. sannrntosa Car-
inichael and considered as restricted to that group, while the New Amsterdam plant
is referred to A. insularis Citerne.
Abstracts 59
Eight subspecies of A. Sanguisorl>a< ;\xv created £91' the Australian and Tas-
manian forms, none of which extend to New Zealantl. The New Zealand forms,
all of which arc endemic, consist of the following subspecies :—
1. Novae-Zelandiae (Kirk) Bitter, and its varieties— viridissima Bitt. and
subtusglaucescens Bitt.
2. Oaesiiglauca Bitter (probably = var. pilosa T. Kirk of .4. Sanguisorbae)
and its vars. brevibracheata Bitt. and involucrata Bitt.
:?. Profundeincisa (described from cultivated plants) and its variety
sericeinitens Bitt. (Kelly's Hill. leg. L. Cockayne).
4. Pusilla (described from a cultivated plant in the Bremen Botanical
Garden) and its five varieties, three of which are founded on speci-
mens in Herb. Berol., collected by Krull in Chatham Islands, and
another var. antarctica Cockayne.
5. Aucklandica* (Auckland Island, Hooker, f. Herb. Berol.. Florent,,
Paris).
The remainder of the New Zealand species arc put into two special sections ol
the genus, both of which are endemic. A. glabra Buchanan forming the section
pteracaena Bitter, and A. microphylla Hook f. and A. Buchanani Hook f. the
section microphyllae Bitter. A. microphylla is divided into the subspecies
eumicrophylla B'itt. and obscurascns Bitt. The former contains the var. inermis
(Hook, f.) Kirk, and this is resolved into two forms named respectively longiscapa
Bitt. and breviscapa Bitt. and the var. pallideolivacea Bitt. described from a culti-
vated plant in the Berlin Botanic Garden. The subspecies obsr.urascehs is based on
cultivated plants coming from the nursery of Thomas Ware ; the vars. depressa
T. Kirk and pauciglochtdiata Bitt. are included here. This latter is evidently the
dune form of Southland. A new variety inermis Bitt. of A. Buchanani is described.
Finally, a number of hybrids of garden origin* mostly between New Zealand
species, especially A. microphylla and A. Sanguisorbae are described and their
leaves figured.
It must be added that the author docs not look upon this work as a monograph
of the genus, but onlv as material for such.
L. C.
6. On the Peopling by Plants of the Subalpine River-bed of the
Rakaia (Southern Alps of New Zealand). By L. Cockayne.
(Trans, and Proo. Bot. Sue. Edin., vol. 24. pp. 104—125, pi. 3;
1911.)
The relation between the evolution of a land form and its plant covering is a
matter of high phyto-geographical interest, but one extremely difficult to estimate
in the majority of cases. A New Zealand stony river-bed affords an excellent
subject for such a study. The peopling of such near its glacier source may be a
similar phenomenon to what happened on the Canterbury Plains at the close of
the glacial period. A brief account is given of the physiography of a river-bed,
and it is shown to be in a constant state of change, and to present all gradations
of station from new stony bed, swept at times by water, to low stable terraces.
The river-bed in question is in a forest climate depending upon the average dis-
tance reached by the western rainfall. Generally speaking, the climate is partly
hygrophytic and partly xerophytic, for the effect of the heavy rain is neutralized
by the insolation, the frost, and. above all, the high winds. An important factor
affecting the soil is the presence, at no great distance below the surface, of ice-cold
water. A glacial river-bed near its source is both a physically and physiologically
dry station.
A synopsis is given of the species of the river-bed according to their growth-
forms. There are two low trees, fourteen shrubs, two lianes, and thirty herbs or
subshrubs. A special account is furnished of the Baoulia form, and it is pointed
out how the species show an epharmonic gradation of forms from the rapidly grow-
ing mats of B. tenuicaulis, with its open mesophytic leaves of seedlings and rever-
sion shoots, to the highly differentiated woolly masses of B. eximia, &c. Tin
[* It is almost certain that this is identical with A. Sa"iui orlae var. nn'wdiia Cockayne. That
variety was founded, so far as the description of the flower and scape went, upon one flower coming out of
season on a plant just brought from Auckland Island. It is now known that the fruiting-scape is much
longer than as described, and that its hairiness was underestimated. Bitter suggests the Auckland Island
plant may be related to -4. msularis.]
60 Abstracts.
peopling of the bed resolves itself into several distinct stages, each of which is
really a valid plant association always present on the river-bed, and although, like
any so-called stable plant formation, it is capable of change, it is just as much a
feature of the landscape as is a forest. The first stage on the unstable bed is an
Epilobium association consisting of certain species of that genus and 2-3 species
of Raoulia. The second stage is a Raoidia association, which denotes more stable
ground. Here the low cushions of Tf. Haastii become dominant. They offer a soil
for various steppe-plants, which in time kill and replace them, and by degrees
steppe, the third stage, is established through tussock-grasses becoming dominant.
In some places, where the conditions are favourable, scrub Is the climax associa-
tion. The affinities of the river-bed associations are dealt with. Prior to its
peopling it is nearest allied to shingle-slip, but they have no species in common,
unless the shingle he fairly stable, as in the bed of a gully. The Raoidia association
is ecologically and Boristically related to lowland river-bed, though there R. Haa-</ii
is absent. The steppe is related to that of dry mountain-slopes, but is made up of
fewer species. The scrub association is almost identical with subalpme scrub, and
the Discaria thickets have their counterpart on lowland river-beds and dunes.
L. C.
7. The Hepatics of New Zealand. By L. 8. Gibbs. (Journal of
Botany, vol. 49, pp. 261-2G6; 1911.)
A list of Hepaticae collected by the author in October and November, 1907,
principally in the forest at Nihotapu and Te Aroha, Auckland. The identifications
are by F. Stephani, of Leipzig. Details are given as to habitats and general dis-
tribution. Forty-one species are noted, of which Marchantia laceriloba Steph.,
Aneura papulolimbata Steph.. Calobryum Gibbsiae Steph., and Lepidozia Gibbsiana
Steph. are new, and will be described in due course. Treubia insignis (roebel, of
Java, is considered identical with the New Zealand plant.
L. C.
8. Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie : New Zealand and Adjacent
Islands. By P. Marshall, M.A.. D.Sc, F.G.S., &c. (Heidelberg,
1911.)
This work, one of a series being published in Germany in order to <rive in handy
form a reliable account of the geology of each country of the world, contains an
excellent and concise summary of what is known up to the present of the geology
of New Zealand. The subject is treated in a judicial and admirable manner, with
copious references to authorities and a careful regard for the opinions of those
differing from the author's own. No further reference need be made in this
abstract to those parts of the work which summarize the results of previous
workers, and only such points will be dealt with as introduce new matter or have
bearing on the author's departure from accepted opinions on the difficult ques-
tions of New Zealand geology.
The most important point to which reference must be made is the application
of the term " Oamaru system" to all the beds of Tertiary age below the Pliocene.
The author here follows the classification suggested in his paper on the "Younger
Rock-series of New Zealand," published, in last year's Transactions, and includes
in one conformable series beds which are generally assigned to the Waipara. Oamaru.
and Pareora systems.
The rocks usually classified as Maitai, together with those admitted by all
experienced authorities to be of Triassic and Jurassic age, are also included in one
conformable series and called Jura-Trias. The conclusion has been arrived at by
the author after a careful examination of the beds in the typical locality near
Nelson, where rocks containing characteristic Triassic fossils are said to be con-
formable to those of the Maitai series, which arc identical with those forming the
main mountain masses of New Zealand. This point of view is not by any means a
new one, since several observers have expressed their belief in the conformity of
Abstracts bl
the Triassic beds near Nelson to the typical Maitai series, although they have
frequently changed their attitude on the question. The author makes a radical
departure, however, in assigning to this series the schists of the Pelorus Valley
and the Marlborough Sounds as well as those of Central Otago. He says, " It
is therefore true that, so far as observations go, no unconformities of any
importance have yet been discovered between the Trias-Jura and the schists of
Otago, though the two formations extend side by side for 200 miles. . . .
Such remarkably concordant observations show that the stratigraphical evidence
almost compels one to plate the Trias- Jura and the Otago schists in the same series."
Lithological evidence to support this contention is cited from Otago, and also from
the schist-areas of Westland. The author points out the entire absence of fragments
of schists in the conglomerates and sandstones of which the Maitai sediments are
formed, although fragments of granite and other plutonic rocks are common. The
palaeontological evidence, as well, is considered favourable to the contention thai
the sediments, and therefore in all probability the conformable metamorphic rocks,
are of Trias-Jura age.
Section III of the work deals with the geological history of the country, and
the special conditions under which the beds were laid flown. The author is of
the opinion that the thick Maitai series was laid down on a shore-line, and not in
the deep sea as believed by Hutton. He explains the absence of fossils by com-
paring the conditions of deposition with those of a modern sandy-shore line, which
is almost devoid of animal-remains.
The problems connected with the orogeny of the country are fully dealt with,
and reference is made to the bearing of the recent work of the Geological Survc\
on this important question. The author dissents from the view insisted on by
Gregory that, there are two periods of mountain-folding in New Zealand, one
trending north-west and the other north-oast, the former occurring in north-west
Nelson and in Otago. It is pointed out that in the latter case the rocks of
undoubted Jurassic age are affected by this direction of folding in Otago, and
therefore the folding cannot he of earlier date, it being in all probability of late
Jurassic age.
The author deals briefly in various sections with the inferences that can be
drawn from the character of the fauna and flora as to the climates of former
geological periods. He apparently accepts Ettingshausen's determinations of oui
fossil plants. Perhaps, in the absence of published papers showing the extremely
doubtful value of the identifications, the author was compelled to do so. However,
the seeds identified as hakea, occurring in the lignites of Central Otago, should
be assigned to a Podocarpus allied to P. vitensis, which suggests as equally interest-
ing problems of land connection or the transport of seeds as if the relation was
really with an Australian form.
Full attention is given as occasion demands to the history of the volcanoes
in various parts of the country ; the outlying islands to the south are specially
referred to : and the difficult question of the Pleistocene glaciation receives careful
consideration. These are sections of the subject on which the author is speciaih
qualified by his own personal researches to speak with authority. A brief summary
of the economic geology of the country is given, and the work concludes with a lis)
of the literature which has appeared since Wilcken's catalogue was compiled in
1910, a list of the more important works dealing with Now Zealand geology, and
a list of the works cited in the text.
R. S
•John Mackay. Government Printer, Wellington.- -1911.
[2.000/11/11—18213
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911
PART III
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
Issued 10th June, 1912
ffl&Uingion, ft.%.
JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Street, Stband, London W. C.
CONTENTS.
PROCEEDINGS.
1. New Zealand Institute: Minutes, annual meeting, 25th January,
1912.
2 Presidential address.
3. Auckland Institute : Meetings, 23rd October and 28th November,
1911; annual meeting, 26th February, 1912.
4. Wellington Philosophical Society : Annual meeting, 4th October,
1911; special meeting, 1st November, 1911.
5. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : Meeting, 1st November, 1911 ;
annual meeting, 6th December, 1911.
6. Otago Institute: Meeting, 7th November, 1911; annual meeting,
5th December, 1911. Technological Section — Meetings, 17th
October and 21st November, 1911. Astronomical Section — Meet-
ing, 9th October, 1911.
7. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute: Meeting, 3rd November, 1911;
annual meeting, 11th December, 1911.
3. Manawatu Philosophical Society: Meeting, 10th November, 1911;
annual meeting, 28th November, 1911.
ABSTRACTS.
1. " Monographie der Gattung Koeleria," by Dr. Karl Domin.
2. " Monographie der Gattung Taraxacum," by Dr. H. F. von Handel-
Mazetti.
APPENDIX.
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
1911.
PART III.
NINTH ANNUAL MEETING.
Christchurch, 25th January, 1912.
The annual meeting of the Board of Governors was held at Canterbury
College, Christchurch, on Thursday, 25th January, 1912, at 10 a.m.
Present : Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, President (in the chair), Messrs. M.
Chapman, K.C., Dr. Cockayne, C. A. Ewen, A. Hamilton, H. Hill,
H. Hesse, Dr. Hilgendorf, Professor Kirk, Professor Marshall, Dr.
Petrie, R. Speight, J. Stewart, G. M. Thomson, M.P., and K. Wilson.
Dr. Cockayne welcomed the Governors to Christchurch, and the
President replied.
The Secretary announced the changes in the representation on the
Board, and the incorporation of the Wanganui Philosophical Society,
and called the roll.
Wanganui Philosophical Society. — The President moved, That the
action of the Standing Committee in incorporating the Wanganui
Philosophical Society be confirmed ; that the Board of Governors offers
its sincere congratulations to the new Society, and tenders' its best
Avishes for its future success. The motion was seconded by Mr. Hamilton,
and carried.
Apologies. — The President apologized for the absence of the Hon. the
Minister of Internal Affairs (Mr. Buddo), and for Mr. John Young.
Presidential Address. — The President then delivered his annual ad-
dress (see page 75). He moved a resolution of condolence to the late
Sir Joseph Hooker's family, which was seconded by Dr. Cockayne, and
carried, as follows : —
The Board of C4overnors of the New Zealand Institute is desirous of recording,
at the earliest opportunity, its sincere and profound regret at the death of Sir Joseph
Dalton Hooker, for many years one of the leaders of botanical science, the co-worker
of Darwin, of Lyall, and of Bentham ; and renowned as an explorer, an author, and
an administrator.
68 Proceedings.
His researches into the botany of New Zealand, commenced during the Antarctic
voyages of Sir J. D. Ross, continued during the preparation of the " Flora Novae
Zelandiee," and culminating in the publication of the "Handbook of the New
Zealand Flora," have been of incalculable value to science in New Zealand, and
have placed the study of its botany on a secure and lasting foundation, while the
encouragement and assistance which he invariably gave to all students and investi-
gators have been of the utmost service to those who have endeavoured to supplement
his work.
The Board also desires that a copy of this resolution should be sent to Sir
Joseph Hooker's family, with an expression of its sincere condolence, and an assur-
ance of its sympathy in their sad bereavement.
Correspondence. — Letters from Dr. W. S. Bruce (21st September,
1911) acknowledging his election as honorary member, and from Hon.
D. Buddo (3rd May, 1911) with reference to bathymetrical and biological
surveys, were received.
Incorporated Societies' Reports. — The annual reports of the Philo-
sophical Institute of Canterbury, the Manawatu Philosophical Society,
the Otago Institute, and the Wellington Philosophical Society were received.
Standing Committee, Annual Report. — The annual report* of the
Standing Committee was read and adovjted, on the motion of Mr.
Hamilton, seconded by Mr. Chapman. The report was as follows: —
Report of the Standing Committee.
Four meetings of the Standing Committee were held during the year, the attend-
ance being as follows : Mr. Cheeseman, 4 meetings ; Professor Easterfield, 4 ; Mr.
Hamilton, 4; Mr. Chapman, 3; Mr. Ewen, 3; Mr. Young, 1.
Hector Memorial Fund. — A deed of trust has been prepared, and is submitted
for approval of the Board. Award for 1911 : The Committee of Award has for-
warded its recommendation in a sealed envelope, to be opened at the annual meeting.
Hutton Memorial Fund (Medal). — Professor Benham, F.R.S., the first recipient
of the award, was publicly presented with the medal on the 4th April, 1911, by the
Chancellor of the Otago University, James Allen, Esq., M.P. The next award may
be made in 1913.
Purchase of Bach Numbers of the Transactions. — A number of volumes have
been received in exchange, and the Secretary is now able to supply sets of Trans-
actions from Vol. 5 at the reasonable price of .£15. The Committee submits that
the possibility of reducing the immense stock of back numbers should be considered.
Publications of the Institute. — Copies of Vol. 43 of the Transactions were, in
accordance with the Act, laid on the table of the House of Representatives on the
11th August, and on the table of the Legislative Council on the 23rd August, 1911.
This volume was posted simultaneously to all New Zealand members on the 17th
August. The index to the first forty volumes of the Transactions of the Institute
(1868-1907) was published in July, 1911. So far, only some twenty-five copies have
been disposed of.
Finance. — The Standing Committee made an unsuccessful endeavour during the
last session of Parliament to have the annual Government statutory subsidy of £500
increased. It is, however, hoped that a further effort in this direction which is to
be made may be more successful. It will be necessary to consider methods for
increasing the income of the Institute in order to enable its liabilities to be met.
The following are suggested as some ways in which money may be obtained and
saving effected : (1.) By the payment by every incorporated society of a portion of its
income to the Institute, as provided by Regulation 5e under the New Zealand Insti-
tute Act, 1903. (2.) By exercising greater economy in the travelling-expenses of
members of the Board. "(3.) By holding all meetings "in Wellington.* (4.) By ceasing
the separate publications of the Proceedings. That the incorporated societies should
subsidize the Institute is only fair, since each of their members receives the bound
copy of the Transactions and Proceedings, and Regulation 5e states that a propor-
tional contribution may be required from each society towards the cost of publishing
it. The payment of the hotel expenses of members of the Board, and the holding
of the annual meeting away from Wellington, are recent innovations, entailing much
extra expense. Tf all the members of the Board attended it would cost, for personal
* This suggestion was pointed out by Dr. Hilgendorf as being contrary to section 8, New Zealand
Institute Act, 1908.
X itith Annual Meeting. 69
expenses of members, €124 9s. 4d. to hold the annual meeting in Auckland, and only
£'50 19s. lOd. to hold it in Wellington. The separate publication of the Proceedings
is an expensive experiment, of doubtful utility.
British Association Meeting in Australia, 191 Jf. — Several gentlemen having ap-
proached the Government with a request that it should financially assist the move-
ment to induce some of the British Association members and a selection of American
and Canadian men of science to visit New Zealand, a promise to give £2,000 was
made by the Right Hon. the Premier. A Reception Committee has been formed
having the following constitution : (1) The original signatories of the letter to the
Premier ; (2) the representatives of the Professorial Boards of the New Zealand
University Colleges; (3) the representatives of the New Zealand Institute branches;
(4) the New Zealand Institute subcommittee and the Secretary of the New Zealand
Institute. As a result of their Committee's efforts, an invitation from the New
Zealand Government was, in September, 1911, cabled to the High Commissioner in
London, who was instructed to associate himself with Professor E. Rutherford and
Mr. W. P. Reeves in communicating the invitation to the British Association, then
meeting at Portsmouth. The invitation was accordingly put before the officers of
the British Association at the September meeting. While of the opinion that the
invitation should be accepted with their grateful thanks, the officers, seeing that the
members of the Association would not visit New Zealand until early in 1915, asked
to be allowed to postpone consideration of the invitation until the beginning of 1914,
when they will communicate their intentions to the High Commissioner for New
Zealand. Professor Maclaurin has been asked to act as the agent of the Committee
in America.
Position of the Incorporated Societies. — Mr. Hamilton has given notice to move
the following resolution : " That the names of the Southland and Westland Societies
be removed from the list of societies incorporated in the New Zealand Institute,
unless cause to the contrary be shown at the annual general meeting, or within one
month afterwards." T. F. Cheeseman.
Return. — A return showing the cost of holding the annual meeting
in Auckland compared with Wellington was received.
Government Statutory Grant. — It was proposed by Mr. Thomson,
and seconded by Mr. Speight, That the Government be asked to amend
the New Zealand Institute Act in the direction of increasing the annual
statutory grant from ,£500 to £750; and, further, that it be asked to
make a special grant for the current year of £250 to enable the Institute
to meet its outstanding liabilities. — Carried.
Proceedings. — It was proposed by Mr. Chapman, and seconded by
Mr. Speight, That, in the event of the Government declining to increase
the statutory grant to the Institute, the publication of the proceedings
be discontinued. — Carried.
Southland and Westland Societies. — Mr. Hamilton moved, and Mr.
Chapman seconded, That the names of the Southland and Westland
Societies be removed from the list of societies incorporated in the New-
Zealand Institute, unless cause to the contrary be shown at the annual
general meeting in 1913, or within one month afterwards. — -Carried.
Future Reports. — It was proposed by Mr. Speight, and seconded by
Mr. Thomson, That the Secretary be instructed to furnish each member
of the Board with a copy of the report of the Standing Committee, and
the business to be submitted at the meeting, one week previous to the
meeting of the Board of Governors. — Carried.
Reports of Incorporated Societies. — Mr. Chapman proposed, and Dr.
Petrie seconded, That the affiliated societies be requested to furnish the
information required under the resolution of the Board of the 27th
January, 1911. — Carried.
Statement of Receipts and Expenditure. — Mr. Hamilton moved, and
Dr. Petrie seconded, That the audited statement of accounts be adopted.
— Carried.
70
Proceedings .
Professor Marshall proposed, and Dr. Hilgendorf seconded, That at
future annual meetings of the Board of Governors a statement of assets
and liabilities, dulv audited, be added to the statement of receipts and
expenditure. — Carried.
Statement of Receipts and Expenditure.
Receipts.
Balance brought forward
Government grant . .
Sale of " Maori Art "
Sale of Transactions
Postage refund
Extra authors' reprints
Sale of index
Sale of Bulletins Nos. 1 and 2
£
s.
(1.
77
11
2
500
0
0
20
19
0
23
2
(»
1
18
0
6
0
7
5
5
3
0
4
6
£635 0 6
Expenditure.
Salary, Secretary
Typing ..
Museum custodian services . .
Petty cash —
Hon. Editor
Secretary
Bank commission and ex-
change
Compiling catalogue of New
Zealand scientific literature
Postage, Proceedings
Postage, Transactions
Travelling- expenses of Presi-
dent
Insurance of books. .
Government Printer —
Printing Proceedings — Part
11,1910; Parti, 1911
Printing authors' reprints. .
Printing index to forty vols.
Transactions
Compiling above index
Stationery
Book purchased for library . .
Balance as per pass-book
£ s. d.
25 0 0
13 8 2
5 0 0
5 0 0
4 0 0
0 12 6
10 0 0
4 17 4
20 8 0
17 3 0
9 0 0
28 13 6
2 7 0
60 0 0
30 0 0
8 13 7
0 18 9
389 18 8
£635 0 6
Carter Bequest, Hutton Memorial Fund, and Hector Memorial Fund
Statements. — It was proposed by Mr. Hamilton, and seconded by Dr.
Petrie, That the audited statements of the Carter Bequest, the Hector
Memorial Fund, and the Hutton Memorial Fund be received. — Carried.
A letter from Dr. Chilton with reference to his grant from the
Hutton Fund was received.
Carter Bequest. — Statement of Account, 31st December. 1910, to 31st December.
1911. — Residuary Account.
Cr. £ s. d. Dr. £ s. d.
Balance as at 31st Decem-
ber, 1910 .. .. 2,988 18 7
Interest, N.Z. Loan and Mer-
cantile Agency Company 0 13 9
Interest, Public Trust Office 134 7 11
£3,124 0 3
Public Trust Office commis-
sion
Balance
0 0 4
3,123 19 11
£3,124 0 3
Hutton Memorial Research Fund. — Statement of Account, 31st December. 1910,
to 31st December, 1911.
Cr. £ s. d. | Dr. £ s. d
Balance as at 31st December, Dr. C. Chilton, payment . . 10 0 0
1910 .. .. .. 642 2 1 Balance .. .. .. 660 10 10
Public Trust Office, interest . . 28 8 9
£670 10 10
£670 10 10
Ninth Annual Meeting. 71
Hector Memorial Fund. — Statement of Account, 31st December, 1910, to 31st
December, 1911.
Cr. £ s. d. | Dr. £ s. d.
Balance as at 31st December, Balance .. .. 1,130 12 1
1910 . . . . . . 444 7 10
Fixed deposits . . . . (319 4 0
Interest .. .. 24 15 2
Public Trust Office, interest 42 5 1
£1,130 12 1
£1,130 12 1
Coleoptera. — The President detailed the steps he had taken regarding
the proposed publication of Major Broun's work on the Coleoptera. —
Approved.
Hector Memorial Deed of Trust. — On the motion of Mr. Hamilton,
seconded by Dr. Petrie, the President and Secretary were authorized to
affix the seal of the Institute to the Hector Memorial trust deed. (See
Appendix, page 106.)
Hector Medal Award. — The recommendation of the Award Committee,
which was received in a sealed envelope, was then read, and it was
unanimously resolved, That the recommendation of the Hector Medal
Committee, which recommended that the Hector Medal be awarded to
Dr. Cockayne, be adopted.
Publication Committee Report. — This was read, and, on the motion
of Mr. R. Speight, seconded by Mr. A. Hamilton, it was resolved, That
the report of the Publication Committee be received. The report was
as follows : —
Report of Publication Committee.
The Committee begs to report that during the year sixty-nine papers in all were
sent in for publication in the Transactions and Proceedings ; these were duly con-
sidered by the Committee, and were dealt with as follows : Six were published in the
Proceedings — i.e., one in Part I, two in Part II, and two in Part III ; one lengthy
paper was reserved for separate publication ; three papers were not recommended for
publication ; the remainder were published in the Transactions as fifty-seven papers,
in three cases two papers dealing in each case with the same subject having been
combined under one title. Notwithstanding that many of the papers were consider-
ably cut down at the request of the Committee, both as regards text and illustra-
tions, Vol. 43 of the Transactions proved to be rather larger than in the previous
year, filling (380 pages, with 32 plates and a very large number of text figures. The
Transactions were issued on the 1st July, 1911 ; the first part of the Proceedings,
pages 1 to 30, was issued on the 10th September, 1910 ; the second part, pages 31
to 58, on the 18th January, 1911 ; and the third part, pages 59 to 128, on the 12th
May, 1911.
The Committee regrets that, owing to financial reasons, it has not yet been
found possible to print the paper that was reserved for separate publication.
In accordance with the resolution passed at the annual meeting of the Board ot
Governors in January, 1911, approving of the policy of printing short scientific
papers in the Proceedings, six papers were printed in the Proceedings, 1911, Part I ;
this part, comprising 33 pages, was issued on the 30th August, 1911. Part II is
now in the Printer's hands, and in it two short papers are being published.
The Committee desires to emphasize again the desirability of having the scale
of charges for authors' reprints definitely fixed and printed, so that the probable
cost of additional copies may be readily obtainable. This step was considered and
approved by the last meeting of the Board of Governors, but up to the present no
schedule of charges has been furnished.
With a view to diminishing the cost of the Transactions without interfering
with its value as a scientific publication, the Committee wishes to affirm the principle
that the use of photographs, unless of excellent character, should be discouraged,
unless they serve to illustrate more satisfactorily the features which the author
72 Proceed lings.
desires to draw attention to. Even moderately executed drawings are at times more
explanatory from a scientific point of view than a good photograph.
The Committee would also like to recommend, unless the matter is out of its
province, that a list of publications actually received by the Institute should be
inserted in the Transactions in addition to the list of the societies, &c, to which
the Transactions are sent free of charge. This would give at times important infor-
mation as to the presence in New Zealand of papers that are of value to workers in
many branches of science.
The Committee would also recommend that theses written for honours degrees
should be pruned of all superfluous matter before being published in the Trans-
actions. Maps and sections coloured as suitable for examination purposes should be
redrawn in a form and character adapted for printing in the Transactions, and the
Secretaries of societies should see to this before accepting them for transmission to
the Editor.
In October Dr. Chilton resigned from his position as Honorary Editor, as he
was about to visit Europe, and, with the approval of the President, the Publication
Committee arranged with Mr. R. Speight to act as Honorary Editor till the annual
meeting of the Board of Governors in January.
R. Speight, Acting Hon. Editor.
Hon. Librarian's Report. — The report of the Hon. Librarian was
received, as follows : —
Hon. Librarian's Report.
I have to report that very little has taken place in regard to the library during
the last year.
The usual exchanges have been received and noted.
Additional pigeon-holes have been provided for the better storage of some of
the serial publications.
Very little use hasbeeu made of the library, except, by one or two college students.
I have again to regret that it seems impossible to have this collection of books
properly attended to. It needs the constant care and attention of a qualified
librarian, and the position will always be unsatisfactory until this is arranged for.
A. Hamilton, Librarian.
Exchange List Committee. — The report of the Exchange List Com-
mittee was received, and, on the motion of Mr. Chapman, seconded
by Mr. Wilson, it was resolved, That the B list of the Exchange Com-
mittee's report be referred to the Standing Committee to act on the
recommendations of the Exchange Committee. The report of the Com-
mittee was as follows : —
Exchange List Committee Report.
The Committee on Exchanges reports that it drew up an interim report, a
copy of which was printed and sent out to each of the members for their detailed
consideration.
The societies, &c, who send or receive publications were classed under the
following heads : —
A. Societies to whom the New Zealand Institute publications are sent, and from
whom publications are received regularly.
B. List of societies to whom the publications of the New Zealand Institute are
sent, but which either do not publish Proceedings and Transactions or do not send
them in exchange.
Q. List of societies who send publications of various kinds at irregular inter-
vals, but who do not receive the publications of the New Zealand Institute.
The Committee was asked to make suggestions on these three lists, and in order
to assist it in the consideration of the matter further lists were added.
D. List of publications received by the Museum in exchange for the Museum
Bulletin.
E. List of those societies which in exchange for the Transactions ol the New
Zealand Institute send more than one copy of their publications to the library of
the New Zealand Institute or other libraries of the branches.
F. List of publications subscribed by the Wellington Philosophical Society.
These three lists were simply included to point out what literature was avail-
able in Wellington, as it was understood that, although the publications in the D
and F lists are not the property of the Institute, the members of the Institute are
at liberty to borrow them for consultation.
Ninth Annual Meeting. 73
It was also thought that a list of those works which are available would prevent
perhaps unnecessary duplication again.
The general feeling of the Committee appears to be that those societies on the
B list, with few exceptions, should be struck off the list of those to whom the
publications of the Institute are sent, it being understood that if they still desire
to receive our publications they should state what publications of their own they
are willing to send in regular exchange.
Your Committee therefore suggests that during the current year the matter
should be taken in hand, and a notice sent explaining why the current volume is
not forwarded as usual.
Your Committee hopes that during the present year some steps may be taken
to reorganize the library under a permanent librarian, who shall devote more time
to its proper custody and arrangement than is possible at the present time.
For the Committee (Professor Easterfield and Mr. Hamilton).
A. Hamilton.
Committee to formulate Regulations. — The report of the Committee
was received, and, on the motion of Mr. Hamilton, seconded by Mr.
Hesse, it was resolved, That the regulation relating to the adoption
of the seal be gazetted. The report was as follows : —
Committee to formulate the Regulations.
Your Committee has considered the various regulations passed by the Standing
Committee since the annual meeting, 1904, a copy of which is annexed.
Mr. Chapman has kindly gone through the whole of the regulations or resolutions
very carefully, and finds that the only one, in his opinion, that requires to be gazetted
as a regulation in accordance with the Act is the one relating to the readoption of
the old seal of the former Institute as the seal of the Institute under the new Act.
There are a few others : No. 5, Travelling-expenses of Governors to be paid ;
No. 6, The money of the Carter Bequest to be placed in the hands of the Public
Trustee as trustee for the Institute ; No. 14, That it is not competent for members
(sic) of the Board to hold any paid office under the Board ; No. 19, That a certain
number (say, ten) of separate copies of papers be printed for the Institute in addition
to the copies supplied to the author ; and No. 20, That the Editor be the convener
of the Publication Committee. These might, without any harm, be made regulations
by the Institute in a formal manner, and might then be gazetted.
It is not considered necessary that the other resolutions be gazetted as regu-
lations.
For the Committee (Messrs. A. Hamilton, M. Chapman, T. F. Cheeseman, and
Dr. Chilton). A. Hamilton.
Hector Medal Committee. — The report of the Committee to obtain
the Hector Memorial Medal was received, as follows : —
Report of Committee to obtain the Hector Medal.
The Committee beg to report that they have communicated with Messrs. Wyon,
and instructed them to proceed with the designing of the Hector Medal in accord-
ance with suggestions forwarded by the Committee.
Messrs. Wyon, when the design was ready, were to submit it for approval to
Sir Edward Thorpe.
Subsequent correspondence shows that this has been done, and your Committee
have every hope that a copy of the medal will be ready to lay before the Board of
Governors at the annual meeting.
For the Committee (Mr. A. Hamilton and Professor Easterfield).
A. Hamilton.
British Association Reception Committee. — The report of the Com-
mittee was received, as follows : —
Report of Committee to deal w~ith Australian Visit of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science.
Your Committee have met and drawn up lists of American scientific men whom
it would be desirable to invite to New Zealand to attend a gathering of the members
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
The formal invitation to the members of the British Association was communi-
cated to the Council by the High Commissioner for New Zealand in September.
74 Proceedings.
A letter has been received from the High Commissioner stating that they were
pleased to receive the invitation, but that they consider it too soon to make any
definite arrangements in the matter.
For the Committee (Messrs. T. F. Cheeseman, A. Hamilton, and Professor
Easterfield). A Hamilton.
Fishes of New Zealand. — On the motion of Mr. Thomson, seconded
by Professor H. B. Kirk, it was resolved, That the Board of Governors
of the New Zealand Institute recommend to the Government the desir-
ability of having a full and illustrated catalogue of the fishes of New
Zealand prepared and printed.
Scientific Board of Advice. — It was proposed by Mr. Thomson,
seconded by Mr. Hamilton, That this Board recommend to the Govern-
ment— (1) That a Scientific Board of Advice be formed to which the
publication of all scientific work should be referred ; (2) that it be sug-
gested that the Board consist of a Minister (ex officio), three scientific
representatives of the Government Departments nominated by the Go-
vernor, and three members elected by the Board of Governors of the
New Zealand Institute; (3) that special grants for all publications to
be issued (except those of the New Zealand Institute) should be made
by the Government. — Carried.
Office for the Institute. — It was proposed by Mr. Hamilton, seconded
by Mr. Hill, That the Minister of Internal Affairs be asked to request
the Government to provide in the new building for the National Museum
accommodation for the library and offices of the New Zealand Institute,
and also to provide storage-room for copies of the Transactions and
papers of the Institute. The Institute also desires that there should
be a suitable room in the building, which they might use as a lecture-
room, to accommodate one or two hundred persons. — Carried.
Election of Officers for 1912. — President, Mr. T. F. Cheeseman; Hon.
Treasurer, Mr. C. A. Ewen ; Joint Hon. Editors, Mr. R.. Speight and
Dr. Hilgendorf ; Publication Committee, Professors Benham and Chilton,
Dr. Hilgendorf, Mr. Speight, and Mr. G. M. Thomson; Secretary, Mr.
B. C. Aston.
Date and Place of Meeting. — On the motion of Mr. Thomson, seconded
by Mr. Speight, it was resolved, That the next annual meeting be held
on Wednesday, 29th January, 1913; and, on the motion of Mr. Hill,
seconded by Dr. Petrie, it was resolved that it be held in Wellington.
Hector Award Committee. — On the motion of Mr. Speight, seconded
by Dr. Hilgendorf, it was resolved, That the Committee for the award
of the Hector Medal for the year 1913 be Professors F. D. Brown, Evans,
Orme Masson, and Mr. G. M. Thomson.
Travelling-expenses of Governors. — On the motion of Mr. A. Hamil-
ton, seconded by Mr. Hesse, it was resolved, That the usual expenses
be paid to Governors and officers attending this meeting.
Votes of Thanhs. — It was resolved that hearty votes of thanks be
accorded to Dr. Chilton and Mr. R. Speight for acting as Editors of
the Transactions and Proceedings of the Institute; to the Canterbury
College for the use of their Board-room ; to the Canterbury Philosophical
Institute for their generous hospitality.
_ , , _ , T. F., Cheeseman.
Read and confirmed.
26th January, 1912.
Ninth Annual Meeting. 75
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
The following is the presidential address delivered at the annual
meeting of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute at
Christchurch, 28th January, 1912, by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.,
F.Z.S., Curator of the Auckland Museum : —
Gentlemen of the Board of Governors, — It is clearly my first duty, as it is
my sincere pleasure, to express my cordial thanks for the confidence you have shown
in placing me in the responsible and honourable position of your President. And
although I fear that this confidence is not so well founded as it should be, and
although I am fully sensible of many shortcomings and deficiencies, I feel assured
that I can rely on the cordial co-operation and support and the lenient judgment of
the members of this Board. But for this belief I should indeed have hesitated before
assuming duties and responsibilities for the discharge of which I possess no special
qualifications.
Before proceeding to address you in reference to the work and progress of the
Institute, it is my painful duty to advert for a few moments to the loss science has
sustained through the death of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, the greatest of British
botanists, the senior honorary member of this Institute, and the man who above all
others has left the most enduring mark on the history of science in New Zealand.
This is neither the time nor the place to offer a formal eulogy on one who for more
than seventy years was an active worker in the field of botanical science, and whose
contributions thereto are renowned throughout the whole world. All I can do here
is to make some general remarks on his life and career, with special reference to
their connection with New Zealand.
In 1839, Hooker, then a young man of twenty-two, left England as assistant
surgeon and botanist to the Antarctic expedition of Sir J. C. Koss. During this
memorable voyage, which lasted nearly four years, he collected the material and
made the observations which after his return enabled him to prepare the " Flora
Antarctica," the "Flora of New Zealand," and the "Flora of Tasmania." The
six volumes comprising these works would alone have made the reputation of any
naturalist ; and upon them, as a broad and secure foundation, rests all subsequent
work on the botany of the temperate portion of the Southern Hemisphere. Every
New Zealand botanist owes a debt of gratitude for these magnificent volumes,
wonderful in point of view of accuracy, originality of treatment, and fullness of
detail. And the subsequently issued " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora," in
which Hooker included all fresh matter received up to the time of publication, made
no inconsiderable addition to the already heavy load of indebtedness.
Hooker's other botanical work has not the same intimate connection with New
Zealand, although its magnitude and importance are indisputable. All I need
mention here are his memoirs on Nepenthes, Wehvitschia, and Balanophora; his
papers and addresses on geographical distribution; his monumental "Flora of
British India"; and, in co-operation with Mr. Bentham, the invaluable "Genera
Plantarum." A full list of his contributions to systematic botany would fill many
pages.
As Director of Kew, Hooker was able to use his unequalled knowledge of plants
and great powers of organization to the very best advantage. The gardens were
raised to a level never before attained, and were made the centre of the botanical
work of the Empire, and the means of transmitting plants of economic value to
all parts of the world. It has been well said that his connection with Kew added
another great reputation to the great reputations he had already built up.
Whatever honours the scientific world could offer, those Sir Joseph Hooker has
received. A member of almost all the chief learned societies in the world, the
recipient of medals and decorations too numerous to particularize, the honour of
knighthood, and the distinction of being selected as one of the first holders of the
Order of Merit : it cannot be said that his labours have been without recognition.
But his scientific work is the best monument to his memory, and will assuredly
carry his name down to future ages. At the close of this address I propose to ask
you to pass a resolution expressing our sense of the great and serious loss science
has sustained in his death.
On the 30th January, 1908, the Board of Governors resolved that at each annual
meeting the President should deliver an address. No theme or subject is particular-
ized in the motion ; but as the meeting is held primarily for business purposes, and
76 Proceedings.
consequently must be largely concerned with the work performed by the Institute
during the year, and must also take into consideration its financial position, it is
obvious that it is the duty of the President to give those explanations that are
necessary for a full knowledge of the doings of the society, and for the proper
comprehension of its finances. I therefore propose to deal with these two matters
first of all ; after which I shall pass to some general considerations respecting the
present position of the Institute and the various incorporated societies.
At the present time the chief work of the Institute lies in the publication of
the annual volume of Transactions. I may therefore appropriately commence what
I have to say with some brief remarks in reference to the volume — the forty-third
of the series — which has been issued during the year. As members are aware, the
Proceedings, although still separately issued, are now also bound up with the Trans-
actions at the end of the year. The Transactions proper contain 680 pages and 32
plates (in addition to numerous figures in the text) ; the Proceedings extend to 128
pages. The entire volume thus comprises 808 pages, and is the largest single volume
that has yet been issued by the Institute. In the previous year (1909) the Trans-
actions covered 645 pages, and the separate Proceedings 160. In addition, two
lengthy papers stretching over 104 pages were printed separately as Bulletins, the
total publications for the year thus occupying no less than 909 pages.
I think it can be said that the recent volume of Transactions compares favour-
ably with any of its predecessors. We all recognize that mere size has nothing to
do with the value of any scientific publication ; but an examination of the volume
will prove to any unprejudiced observer that the quantity of matter contained in it
has in no way depreciated in quality, and that the standard of merit of the various
papers or memoirs is, on the whole, somewhat higher than in previous years. Person-
ally, I think that one or two of the longer communications woidd have gained in
value by judicious condensation ; and I am inclined to doubt the expediency of
admitting two others of great length and of a very different character from those
usually printed. But these are minor matters and do not affect the value of the
Transactions as a whole. I consider that the Editor and Publication Committee
have discharged their duties in an efficient and admirable manner and deserve the
hearty approval of the Board.
The index to the first forty volumes of the Transactions, first authorized at the
meeting of the Board held on the 30th January, 1908, has been completed and
printed. It has been compiled by Mr. Eiddick, of the Government Printing Office,
and consists of two parts — the first an index of authors, the second a classified
catalogue of papers. The total cost of preparation and printing has been a little
under £100. Those who have frequent occasion to use the Transactions will find
the index a great convenience, and I am much surprised to hear that but few copies
have been sold.
The report of the Publication Committee, which will be duly placed before you,
contains several important suggestions, which will doubtless receive the careful con-
sideration of the Board. I would particularly draw attention to a recommendation
to the effect that theses for honours degrees should be pruned of all superfluous
matter before being published in the Transactions. Most of us can recall instances
where a regulation to the above effect would have been productive of much advantage.
In this place I regret to announce that in October Dr. Chilton resigned his
position as Honorary Editor, on account of an approaching visit to Europe. With
my concurrence, the Publication Committee arranged with Mr. R. Speight to act
as Editor until the matter could be discussed by the Board.
I will now offer some remarks on the financial position of the Institute, which,
I regret to say, is causing great anxiety to those who have the management of its
affairs. Without entering into details, which will be found in the balance-sheet
shortly to be placed before you, I will state that the amount to credit at the present
time is about £390. Against this must be placed the sum due to the Government
Printer for last year's Transactions and Proceedings, amounting to £'545. The
Institute is thus practically in debt to the extent of £155. Now, the reason for
this very undesirable state of affairs is perfectly plain, and is doubtless known to
all of you. It is simply due to the enlargement of the Transactions, to the separate
issue and great amplification of the Proceedings, and to the occasional printing of
Bulletins. If we inquire into the cost of the Transactions for the six years between
1902 and 1907 inclusive we shall find that it ranges from £350 to £480, the average
being £414. If we take the three volumes of the new series--that is, Vols. 41 to 43
— with their attendant publications, the result can be given as follows : Cost of
Vol. 41, £441 9s. 3d. ; of Vol. 42, £699 12s. ; of Vol. 43, £545 ; the average for the
three years being £565. In short, the average cost of the Transactions for the last
three years is greater by £151 per annum than the average cost of printing the volume
for the previous six years.
Ninth Annual Meeting. 77
From the above it is evident that if the publications of the Institute are to be
issued in a style comparable to that of the previous three years, then additional
funds must be obtained. An increase in the statutory grant payable by Parliament
would solve all difficulties and enable the Institute to print its Transactions in a
proper and creditable manner. The present grant of £'500 per annum dates from
18G8, when the circumstances of the colony were very different from what they are
now, and when the entire membership of the Institute amounted to only 178. At
the present time there are no less than nine incorporated societies, all actively
engaged in carrying out the objects of the Institute, each in accordance with its
local requirements, and possessing a total membership of not less than 1,000. Their
growth has naturally been accompanied by increased duties and responsibilities,
which tax their resources to the utmost ; but all such demands have been cheerfully
met. On the other hand, notwithstanding the lapse of forty-five years and the
altogether changed conditions, the Government grant is the same as in 1868. It is
only reasonable that the subsidy should be made more proportionate to the amount
raised by private subscription by the incorporated societies and expended on the
purposes of the Institute.
During the last session of Parliament an attempt was made to induce the
Government to enlarge the grant, but, from a variety of causes, no satisfactory
result was obtained. Another application is now being made, which I trust will
prove more successful. I would suggest that this meeting should consider what
steps ought to be taken to support the proposal. The affiliated societies can exer-
cise considerable influence on members of Parliament, and a concerted attempt, if
carefully organized, would probably prove successful. In the meantime I should
recommend that as large a portion as possible of the Government Printer's account
should be paid, and that the rest should stand over until the fate of the application
is known, or possibly until the receipt of the grant for this year.
The report of the Standing Committee, shortly to be placed before you, suggests
certain savings in the expenditure, and alludes to a possible levy on the funds of
the affiliated societies. I am strongly of opinion that such a course is altogether
inadvisable, and should only be adopted as a last resource after all other plans have
failed. It is to the affiliated societies that we must look for the progress of the
Institute. They provide the material for the annual volume, they carry out the
work of the Institute in their separate districts, and they have in most cases entered
into obligations which absorb the whole of their income. To levy contributions
upon them is to arrest progress and create dissatisfaction, without effecting any
permanent improvement in the position of the Institute.
The separate publication of the Proceedings, and their great enlargement, are
responsible for much of the increase in our printing bill. Most of us will cordially
welcome the improvements in the Transactions proper ; but I think it will be diffi-
cult, under present circumstances, to justify the additional expenditure on the Pro-
ceedings. After all, a considerable part of the material printed therein is of
ephemeral value. Five years hence few people will be interested in the doings at
the meetings of the various branches of the Institute, provided that all papers of
permanent value are published in the Transactions. Something can be said in
favour of printing notices of scientific memoirs relating to New Zealand published
outside the Dominion, but even in that case there is little necessity for lengthy
abstracts, the main point being to draw attention to the memoir, and to state where
it can be seen in the Dominion. As for the publication of short papers in the
Proceedings, if such possess any permanent value, they ought to form part of the
Transactions, to which they properly belong, and where they would be naturally
sought for. If, as appears to be the case, the funds at the disposal of the Institute
are insufficient to print both Transactions and Proceedings in the style now being
followed, then it is clearly with respect to the latter that retrenchment should take
place.
Leaving the financial position of the society, there are still one or two matters
upon which some remarks may be expected. In the first place, I have to announce
that a branch of the Institute has been formed at Wanganui, and that you will be
called upon to sanction its incorporation, the preliminary steps for which have been
taken by the Standing Committee. Wanganui has already shown marked activity
in scientific matters, as is evidenced by the establishment of a public Museum and
the foundation of a small astronomical observatory. I am sure you will join with
me in welcoming the new Wanganui Institute and assuring it of our good wishes
for its future success.
While on the subject of the incorporated societies I ought, perhaps, to state that
it is doubtful how far two of the number are complying with the regulations of the
Institute. Notice of a motion on the subject has been given by Mr. Hamilton, and
I trust that it will receive the careful consideration of the Board.
78 Proceedings.
You are aware that the British Association is to meet in Australia towards the
close of 1914, and that the New Zealand Government has very liberally voted the
sum of £2,000 to cover the cost of bringing over a party of members from Australia
after the close of the meeting, together with another party of well-known scientists
from the United States and Canada. A supplementary meeting will then be held
in New Zealand. Although it is almost certain that an arrangement will be made
on the above lines, it is probable that the details will not be available until the
close of 1913 or beginning of 1914. In the meantime, a reception committee has
been formed, on which there is a full representation of the New Zealand Institute.
A few more words and I have finished. It is now nearly forty-five years since
the New Zealand Institute Act became law and the Institute itself sprang into
being. Although only a raw youth at the time, I was one of the original members ;
and I may perhaps be pardoned if I make a very few remarks on the growth of the
Institute, its position at the present time, and what its aims should be in the future.
I have never inquired as to who drafted the original New Zealand Institute Act, or
who framed the first regulations issued under it ; but whoever did so showed great
foresight, and great knowledge of the springs of human action. He clearly recog-
nized that the geographical configuration of the colony would effectually prevent the
growth of one large centre like Sydney or Melbourne dominating and dwarfing all
others, and that in its place there would be several widely separated towns, not far
removed from one another, however, in size, in trade, and in relative importance.
He therefore provided that the Institute should consist of distinct affiliated bodies.
And as it was apparent that different portions of the colony would develop in
different directions and under different circumstances, it naturally followed that
the aims and objects of the various branches would be equally diverse. Hence the
adoption of the important rule that the affiliated societies shall be entitled to retain
or alter their own constitution, and shall conduct their own affairs. They are
practically independent societies, bound together for the performance of a few
common duties, but otherwise free to develop in any direction they may wish.
Mr. Asquith, the Prime Minister of England, in a speech delivered at the time of
the Imperial Conference, said that the problem to be solved in dealing with Imperial
Federation was how to reconcile perfect autonomy with co-operation. I submit that
forty-five years ago that question was settled so far as the scientific societies of
New Zealand were concerned.
Two societies — the Wellington Philosophical Society and the Auckland Institute
— were founded in 1868, within a few months of the passing of the Act. In the
first year of their existence the members' roll numbered 178, the total revenue of
the two societies being about £180. Five years afterwards, or in 1873, the number
of societies had increased to five, with a membership of 563. At the present time
there are nine incorporated societies, and the members' roll can be safely estimated
at 1,000. The revenue derived from members' subscriptions exceeds £1,000, being
thus double the amount of the Government grant. So far as mere membership is
concerned, there is no reason to be dissatisfied with the progress of the Institute.
The primary object of the Institute was originally defined as being " to promote
the cultivation of the various branches of art, science, literature, and philosophy."
If it be asked what the Institute has done in the direction thus indicated, I should
reply that a plain and sufficient answer is written on the pages of the forty-three
volumes of the Transactions. I need not tell you that the Transactions contain an
immense amount of information relating to the natural history, geology, physio-
graphy, and resources of the Dominion. No one can now study the flora or fauna
of the Dominion, or undertake any investigation of a scientific nature respecting it,
without frequent reference to the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."
In short, as a repository and storehouse of information of a scientific and semi-
scientific character relating to New Zealand the Transactions are unequalled, and
in that respect alone have fully justified the formation of the Institute and the
yearly subsidy granted by the Government.
If an inquiry be made as to the work done by the affiliated societies apart from
the Transactions, an equally satisfactory reply can be given. Perhaps I may be
allowed to say a few words in reference to the four leading branches of the Institute.
In Canterbury we have a society surrounded by numerous local institutions tolerably
well provided for. It has thus been able to confine its energies to the proper business
of a scientific society, and in so doing has performed work of very great value. In
proof of this I need only mention its enterprise in publishing Hutton's "Fauna
Novae Zealandiae " and the Subantarctic reports. The Otago Institute follows very
much the same lines, but in its recent formation of astronomical and technological
branches ' is opening up an entirely new avenue of usefulness. In Auckland the
Institute has undertaken the maintenance of the Auckland Museum, a work which
taxes its resources to the utmost, and will do so for many years to come. It has,
Ninth Annual Meeting. 79
however, succeeded in obtaining the hearty co-operation of the citizens, as is proved
by the fact that nearly £20,000 has been either bequeathed or subscribed by private
liberality for the endowment or advancement of the Museum. The Wellington
Philosophical Society, if I may be allowed to say so, lags behind a little, and does
not show a membership as numerous as should be the case in the capital city ol
the Dominion. This is much to be regretted, for it is to the Wellington Society
that we must look for some local movement which will result in obtaining a per-
manent home for the library of the New Zealand Institute, and in rendering it
available for the use of students.
As for the future, it lies in the hands of the affiliated societies. They are the
Institute ; their members prepare the papers to be published in the Transactions ;
their delegates form a majority of the Board of Governors ; in their separate dis-
tricts they keep alive the interest in the Institute. I see no reason why the Institute
should not advance as well and as regularly in the future as in the past, provided
that one little matter is kept in mind. It is this : Let the affiliated societies alone ;
make no attempt to tighten the framework which binds them together ; avoid even
the appearance of interfering with their local freedom. To again quote Mr. Asquith's
words, our motto should be " Perfect autonomy, with co-operation."
80 Proceedings.
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
Fifth Meeting : 23 rd October, 1911.
Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair.
New Members. — Messrs. L. W. Alexander, R. Hall, Dr. Marchesini.
Lecture. — " The Canterbury Plains and Banks Peninsula," by E. K.
Mulgan, M.A.
In this lecture, which was copiously illustrated by lantern-views, the physical
structure of the Canterbury Plains was fully described, and it was shown that the
material composing the plains had been derived from the Southern Alps mainly at
a time when the climatic and other conditions were more favourable than now for
the supply and transportation of debris of all kinds. The lecture also explained the
source of the artesian-water supply at Christchurch and elsewhere on the plains.
The structure and formation of Banks Peninsula were then briefly described, and
the lecturer showed how volcanic agencies could be proved to be responsible for the
formation of Lyttelton Harbour and Akaroa Harbour. The lecture concluded with
an account of the loess-deposits on Banks Peninsula and certain portions of the
Canterbury Plains.
Sixth Meeting : 28th November, 1911.
Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair.
New Members. — T. Finlayson, E. Gerard, Dr. P. A. Lindsay, T. F.
Wallace.
Papers. — 1. " Descriptions of New Native Species of Phanerogams,"
by D. Petrie, Ph.D.
2. " On Danthonia nuda and Triodia Thomso?ii," by D. Petrie,
Ph.D.
3. " New Genera and Species of Coleoptera," by Major T. Broun.
4. "On a New Genus and some New Species of Plants," by T. F.
Cheeseman, F.L.'S.
5. " List of Lichens and Fungi collected in the Kermadec Islands
in 1908," by W. R. B. Oliver.
6. " The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of the Lord Howe,
Norfolk, and Kermadec Islands," by W. R. B. Oliver.
In illustration of the last paper Mr. Oliver exhibited an interesting series of
lantern-views, based on photographs obtained by him in the Kermadec Islands in
1908, and which clearly showed how largely the Islands are used as a breeding-place
by certain species of petrels, terns, &c. He also gave many interesting particulars
respecting the habits of the various species.
Professor A. P. W. Thomas spoke in commendation of the paper. He pointed
out that it was one of the results of a scientific expedition made to the Kermadec
Islands by a party of naturalists who were isolated there for eleven months. It
was exceedingly satisfactory to find that there was sufficient enthusiasm in the
pursuit of natural science to bring about such an expedition, and to produce such
satisfactory results.
Auckland Institute. 81
Annual Meeting : 26th February, 1912.
Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair.
Annual Report. — The annual report and audited financial statement
were read to the meeting, and ordered to be printed and circulated
amongst the members.
Abstract of Report.
Membership. — It is satisfactory to state that there has been a considerable influx
of new members, the elections during the year numbering forty-eight. On the other
hand, fourteen names have been removed from the roll — four from death, eight from
resignation, and two from non-payment of subscriptions for more than two consecu-
tive years. The total number of members on the roll at the present time is 235, ot
whom twelve are life members and 223 annual subscribers. Among the members
removed by death, the Council regret to mention the names of Messrs. J. Kirker,
W. Gorrie, D. L. Murdoch, and T. Ching. It is hoped that the increase in the
number of members will be maintained during the coming year, and will continue
to keep pace with the advancing prosperity of the city.
Finance. — Full particulars respecting the financial position of the Institute will
be found in the balance-sheet appended to this report. The total revenue of the
Working Account, including the balance in hand at the commencement of the year,
has been £1,273 5s. lOd. This is slightly more than £'100 in excess of the income
for the previous year, which was £1,170 lis. Examining the separate items, it will
be seen that the Museum endowment has yielded in rents and interest on invest-
ments the sum of £527 12s. 3d. The revenue from the invested funds of the Costley
Bequest has been £392 7s. 6d. The increase in the number of members has naturally
led to a corresponding advance in the amount received for annual subscriptions,
which stand at £208 19s. The total expenditure has been £1,197 14s., leaving a
cash balance of £219 13s. 8d. in the Bank of New Zealand. The special fund sub-
scribed by the citizens of Auckland for the purchase of historic Maori carvings and
other objects will be alluded to in another portion of the report. The Council have
no changes to report respecting the invested funds of the Institute, the total amount
of which — £16,379 4s. 3d. — is the same as that announced last year.
Meetings. — In last year's report it was stated that it had been found necessary
to engage St. Andrew's Hall, Symonds Street, for holding the meetings of the
Institute. This arrangement has been continued during the year, and, on the
whole, has proved satisfactory, both from the point of view of the suitability of
the hall and the attendance of members and others. In all, six meetings have been
held, at which the following lectures and papers were read and discussed : —
1. Presidential address, " Free Public Libraries and Museums," by J. H. Upton.
2. " Sources of Plague in Auckland, and its Prevention," by R. H. Makgill,
M.D.
3. " Heredity," by Professor A. P. W. Thomas, M.A.
4. " Whirling Discs and their Uses," by Professor F. D. Brown, M.A.
5. "The Canterbury Plains and Banks Peninsula," by E. K. Mulgan, M.A.
6. " Description of New Native Species of Phanerogams," by D. Petrie, Ph.D.
7. " On Danthonia nuda and Triodia Thomsoni," by D. Petrie, Ph.D.
8. " New Genera and Species of Coleoptera," by Major T. Broun, F.E.S.
9. " On a New Genus and some New Species of Plants," by T. F. Cheeseman,
F.L.S.
10. "List of Lichens and Fungi collected in the Kermadec Islands in 1908,"
by W. R. B. Oliver.
11. "The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of the Lord Howe, Norfolk,
and Kermadec Islands," by W. R. B. Oliver.
Most of the above papers have been forwarded to Wellington for insertion in
the forthcoming volume of Transactions.
Museum. — With the exception of the ten days devoted to the usual annual clean-
ing and rearrangement, the Museum has been open to the public daily throughout
the year. The attendance of visitors continues to be satisfactory.
The year has been one of considerable activity in the Museum, and the progress
made must be regarded as satisfactory. Numerous additions have been made to
the collections, as will be seen from the appended lists, and several of them are of
more than ordinary importance. Those selected for exhibition have been carefully
and artistically mounted by Mr. Griffin, and have added much to the attractiveness
of the institution.
82 Proceedings.
The most noteworthy additions to the zoological department of the Museum are
as follows : A series of 103 bird-skins from the Kermadec Islands, purchased from
Mr. Roy Bell. A small collection of bird-skins from the Chatham Islands has also
been purchased from Mr. Dannefaerd, containing several species (as, for instance,
Spheneacus rufescen*) now almost, if not altogether, extinct. Special mention should
be made of a fine specimen of a male ostrich in full plumage, presented by the
Helvetia Ostrich Company. Thanks are due to Mr. Hallyburton Johnstone for his
kindness in specially collecting several New Zealand birds required to fill up blanks
in the collections or to replace worn-out examples. Finally, Mr. Pickering has placed
the Museum under many obligations by presenting a magnificent specimen of the
twelve-wired bird of paradise, one of the finest species of the family.
In the geological and mineralogical department the only addition of importance
is an extensive series of specimens illustrating the geology of the Waihi-Tairua Sub-
division, Cape Colville Peninsula, very kindly presented by the Geological Survey
Department, per Mr. Colin Fraser.
Turning to the ethnographical portion of the Museum, mention should be made
of the figurehead of H.M.S. " Vh'ago," presented by the Admiralty through the
kind efforts of Archdeacon Walsh. Under the head of the Maori collections the
thanks of the Institute are due to Mr. G. Graham for a historic greenstone pendant
dating back to the times of the Waiohua, the former inhabitants of the Auckland
Isthmus, also for a greenstone knife or saw used for cutting up human flesh, and for
several other articles of interest. Contributions have also been received from Mr.
Hallyburton Johnstone, Mr. Vaile, Mr. J. Macmillan, Mr. Curtis, Mr. Condron,
and others.
The chief addition to the Maori collections, however, and to the Museum gene-
rally, consists of a series of ancient historic carvings from the East Cape district,
purchased for the Museum only a few weeks ago, and, as they are remarkably good
examples of the best period of Maori workmanship, their value from an ethno-
graphical point of view is very great, and the Council consider that the Museum is
to be congratulated on their acquisition.
Library. — The Mackechnie Library Bequest has yielded its usual income of
slightly more than £'100. A sum of £75 from the general funds of the Institute has
been applied to the purchase of the serial publications regularly subscribed to, and
in binding. Under this last head ninety-two volumes have been added to the
library during the year. The usual exchanges and presentations have been received
from foreign societies, together with some donations from private individuals.
As the numerous additions made to the library of late years had absorbed the
whole of the shelf-room, a new press, capable of accommodating 800 volumes, has
been erected.
Enlargement of the Buildings. — As guardians of the Museum and of the scientific
library of the Institute, the Council cannot conclude this report without calling
attention to some of the drawbacks and deficiencies which will impede the future
development of the Museum and library unless additional accommodation can be
provided, or, in other words, an enlargement of the buildings obtained. It is per-
haps not generally known that in order to provide room for new acquisitions large
numbers of specimens are being withdrawn from exhibition and packed away.
Granted the necessity of enlargement, the question of funds at once arises. To
this it should be replied that such funds ought to be drawn from the public revenue,
the course which has been followed in the southern portion of the Dominion.
In Auckland the total amount of the contributions made by the Government
since 1875 is considerably below £'4,000. Without in any way objecting to the
expenditure on southern museums, the Council maintains that the amount so far
expended on the Auckland Museum is entirely disproportionate, and should be
rectified as soon as possible. They commend the facts quoted above to the earnest
consideration of all those who deal with public affairs in Auckland, and they trust
that the just claims of the Museum will receive that attention which they undoubtedly
deserve.
Election of Officers for 1912. — President — Professor H. W. Segar;
Vice-Presidents — J. H. Upton, Dr. R. Briffault ; Council — Professor
F. D. Brown, Professor C. W. Egerton, E. V. Miller, E. Mitchelson, T.
Peacock, J. A. Pond, J. Reid, J. Stewart, Professor A. P. W. Thomas,
H. E. Vaile; Trustees — Professor F. D. Brown, T. Peacock, J. Reid,
J. Stewart, J. H. Upton ; Curator and Secretary— T . F. Cheeseman;
Auditor — S. Gray.
Wellington Philosophical Society. 83
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Annual General Meeting : £th October, 1911.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair.
New Members. — Mr. Thomas Ward, A.M.Inst.C.E., Professor G. W.
von Zedlitz, Mr. Barclay Hector, Mr. E. K. Lomas, M.A., M.Sc, Rev. J.
Crewes, Major-General A. I. Godley, Colonel E. S. Heard, Mr. J. W.
Macdonald, Mr. W. Turnbnll, Mr. J. A. Bartrum, M.Sc.
The Council's report for the session, and a statement of the receipts
and payments, were read, and, on the motion of Mr. A. Hamilton,
seconded by Mr. G. Hogben, both were adopted. The report was as
follows : —
Annual Eeport.
The session opened on the 10th May with an inaugural address by the President,
Mr. G. V. Hudson, on the value of natural-history subjects.
During the session no less than forty-eight papers have been read, and a number
of interesting exhibits have been brought before the Society.
In addition to the six ordinary meetings, a special meeting was held at Victoria
College, when Professor Laby lectured on the principles of gyroscopic motion, and
exhibited his working model of the Brennan mono-rail, which, with other apparatus
used in the lecture, had been constructed in the College laboratory.
Another special meeting will be held in October, when a lecture will be delivered
on the finger-print system by officers of the Police Department.
The Astronomical Section has shown marked activity, and has now purchased an
equatorial mounting for the 5 in. Cooke telescope. It will be erected and an observa-
tory will be built at Kelburne as soon as the necessary formalities are completed.
The Society notes with pleasure the successful formation of the Eugenics Educa-
tion Society of Wellington, and also of the Wanganui Philosophical Society.
The Society made strong representations to the Government to reserve the whole
of Kapiti Island for native fauna and flora.
The question of tidal observations at the outlying islands has advanced another
stage, and it is probable that arrangements will soon be made by the Government
for observations to be taken at Suva, Fiji.
Since the last annual meeting twenty-four new members have been elected, nine
have resigned, two have died, and one has been struck off the roll for non-payment
of subscription. The total number on the roll is now 145, including six life members
and one honorary member.
A statement of the receipts and expenditure for the year ended 30th September,
duly audited, is presented with this report. Inclusive of the balance brought for-
ward from last year (£55 7s. 5d.), the receipts amounted to £'172 9s. 5d., and the
total payments were £108 15s. 3d., leaving a credit balance of £63 14s. 2d. The
life subscriptions have been placed to the credit of a special fund, which has been
invested at interest with the Public Trustee. This fund now amounts to £20, and
the Research Fund, also invested with the Public Trustee, amounts to £39 10s. 2d.,
making a total sum in hand of £123 4s. 4d.
From the Librarian's report it will be seen that the Society, by purchase or
donation, receives over twenty scientific periodicals, but that only about ten of them
are taken out by members.
The President announced that the following officers were suggested
by the Council for the year 1912 : —
Election of Officers for 1912. — President — Mr. G. V. Hudson; Vice-
Presidents — Mr. Thomas King and Dr. C. Monro Hector; Council — Mr.
F. G. A. Stuckey, Professor D. K. Picken, Rev. D. Kennedy, D.D.,
Professor T. H. Easterfield, Mr. A. Hamilton, Mr. Martin Chapman,
K.C., Professor H. B. Kirk; Secretary and Treasurer — Mr. C. E.
84 Proceedings.
Adams; Librarian — Miss J. A. Wilson; Auditor — Mr. E. R. Dymock.
As no other nominations were made, Mr. A. Hamilton proposed that
the officers as suggested by the Council be elected; seconded by Mr. P. G.
Morgan, and carried.
Astronomical Section. — The annual report of the Astronomical Sec-
tion was read by the Secretary, Mr. A. C. Gifford, and reference was
made to the generous gift by Mrs. W. F. Parsons of a 6 in. reflecting
telescope made by the late Mr. W. F. Parsons in 1873.
Report.
The Council has pleasure in reporting that substantial progress has been made
during the year.
A fine equatorial mounting and pillar have been procured from Messrs. Cooke
and Sons for the 5 in. refracting telescope.
Mrs. Parsons, of the Lower Hutt, has presented to the Society the 6 in. reflecting
telescope which was made by the late Mr. W. F. Parsons in 1873.
Throughout the year strenuous efforts have been made by the Council to secure
permission to build on the site at Kelburne. A succession of technical difficulties
barred the way, but on the 9th October formal permission was received for the
Society to occupy and build upon a quarter of an acre of the Observatory Reserve.
The Council endeavoured to organize a party to co-operate with the Australian
expedition sent to observe the total eclipse of the sun in April last. Unfortunately,
the difficulties in the way proved insuperable.
At the meetings of the section a number of important papers have been read
and delivered.
On the 15th November, 1910, Professor T. H. Laby gave a lecture on " The
Pressure of Light," illustrating his remarks with numerous experiments.
On the 21st February, 1911, Mr. W. S. La Trobe read a paper on "The
Mechanism of Astronomical Instruments." The paper was illustrated by a fine
collection of lantern-slides.
On the 11th April Professor D. K. Picken lectured on " Spherical Geometry and
Trigonometry."
On the 13th June Mr. E. D. Bell read a paper on the " Magellan Clouds."
On the 18th July Mr. C. W. Adams lectured on the " Almucantar System ot
Observation and Kindred Methods."
On the 2nd September the Section and their friends, on the invitation of Mr.
C. E. Adams, Astronomical Observer, met at the Hector Observatory, and the
method of obtaining true time for the Dominion was fully explained.
On the 10th October the annual meeting of the Section was held. The Council
was elected as follows : President — Mr. C. P. Powles ; Vice-Presidents — Dr. C. M.
Hector, the Rev. Dr. Kennedy, Professor D. K. Picken, and Mr. Martin Chapman ;
Council— Messrs. G. Hogben, C. E. Adams, W. S. La Trobe, H. Sladden, C. G. G.
Berry, E. Parry, and Captain G. S. Hooper ; Secretary — Mr. A. C. Gifford.
After the business of the annual meeting Dr. C. M. Hector read a paper on
"The Milky Way."
Papers. — 1. " Earthquake Origins in the South-west Pacific," with
lantern illustrations of the San Francisco Earthquake," by G. Hogben,
M.A., F.G.S.
2. " The Prevention of Cancer and other Diseases," by C. W. Adams.
3. " Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations," by C. E. Adams.
4. Annual report of Astronomical Section.
."). " Typical Sections showing the Junction of the Amuri Limestone
and Weka Pass Stone at Weka Pass," illustrated by photographs, by
C. A. Cotton. .
Abstract.
The photographs exhibited would serve to render intelligible the controversy
concerning the nature of the junction between the Weka Pass stone and Amuri
limestone. The sections photographed were those relied on by Hutton in proof of
his theory of unconformity ; the junction was exposed on each side of a narrow
gorge cut by a small stream through the outcrop of the Weka Pass stone a few
chains north of the railway viaduct in Weka Pass. The controversy which for many
years engaged the attention of New Zealand geologists was to be found in a number
Wellington Philosophical Society. 85
of papers in the Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc, the Trans. N.Z. Inst., and the Reports of
the N.Z. Geological Survey. Hutton, on the one side, in accordance with his theory
of unconformity, described the Weka Pass stone, an argillaceous limestone, glauco-
nitic near the base, as resting, without change of dip, on a broken and fissured
surface of Amuri limestone, and containing rounded pebbles of Amuri limestone
within 6 in. of the junction, but not higher. On the other side, Hector and McKay,
contending for conformity, pointed out the constant, shattered character of the Amuri
limestone throughout its thickness, and explained the rounded pieces of limestone
as concretions. There seemed no sufficient reason to regard the junction as uncon-
formable, but, in view of the importance of the sequence at Waipara and Weka Pass
in New Zealand geology, a satisfactory explanation of its peculiar character would
be welcome.
6. " Description of a Multiple Rainbow," by G. L. Adkin.
Abstract.
In the clear atmosphere of mountain regions optical atmospheric phenomena such
as sunset glows, rainbows, and halos frequently attain a brilliancy and degree ot
splendour seldom seen from stations at lower levels. The multiple rainbow seen on
the 4th January, 1911, from the summit of Mount Waiopehu, 3,588 ft. (a peak on
the western slope of the Tararua Ranges), is a case in point. Looking westward
on the occasion referred to, the state of the atmosphere was such that Mount Egmont,
120 miles away, and the details — inlets, capes, islands, and hills — of the Marlborough
Sounds, eighty miles distant, were remarkably clear and distinct.
The rainbow made its appearance at 5 p.m. The sun was low down in the
western sky when a small, isolated rain-shower drove up from the south, swept
across the summit of the mountain, and travelled rapidly northward, there furnish-
ing the watery "curtain" necessary for the production of the bow. On account of
the local character of the shower, only a portion of the arch became visible ; never-
theless, its unusual breadth and brilliancy made it a very noticeable object.
The rainbow consisted of four parts — (1) the primary bow; (2) the secondary
bow ; (3) the supernumerary bow, situated on the inside of the primary, and con-
sisting of the three outside colour-bands of the latter — i.e., red, yellow, and green —
three times repeated ; and (4) the reflection of the supernumerary bow — a red glow
situated on the outside of the secondary bow. The primary and supernumerary
bows formed a continuous series of colour-bands, the repetition of the colours giving
the whole a corrugated appearance.
7. " Notes on Life-history and Habits of some New Zealand Lepi-
doptera," by R. M. Sunley.
8. " Radio-activity of Thermal Waters of New Zealand," by Dr.
J. S. Maclaurin.
9. " Radio-activity of Sea-water," by Dr. J. S. Maclaurin.
10. " Notes on New Zealand Lepidoptera, wyith Lists of New Localities
and Observations on the Variations noted in certain Species," by A.
Hamilton.
11. " Note on the Composition of Nitric Acid," by H. Fathers; com-
municated by Professor Easterfleld.
12. " On the Use of Phosphorus and Phosphoric Acids for Cryoscopic
Determinations," by G. Pulton; communicated by Professor Easterfleld.
13. " Totarol," by J. C. McDowell; communicated by Professor
Easterfleld.
14. " The Genotypes of Clavigera, Eastilligera, and Psioidea," by
J. Allan Thomson.
15. " Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera,' " by E. Meyrick.
16. " A Revision of the Caradrinina," by E. Meyrick.
17. "Wellington Physiography," by C. A. Cotton.
18. " On the Chemistry of Bush Disease," by B. C. Aston.
19. " Seismographical Records of Earthquakes in New Zealand,
1906-1911," by G. Hogben.
20. " The Phases of Manganic Sulphate," by G. H. Robertson; com-
municated by Professor Easterfleld.
86 Proceedings.
21. "On the Circulatory System of lleptatrema cirrata," by Pro-
fessor Kirk.
22. " On Kermadec Island Sponges; Second Paper," by Professor
Kirk.
23. " Montan Wax," by T. Rigg; communicated bv Professor Easter-
field.
Special Meeting : 1st November, 1911.
Mr. Martin Chapman, K.C., in the chair.
The Chairman introduced Chief Detective Mcllveney and Mr. E.
Dinnie, of the criminal registration section of the Police Department,
who gave an interesting lecture, illustrated by many fine lantern-slides,
on the finger-print system for the detection of criminals.
The lecture was listened to with close attention, and on its conclusion the
. lecturers were heartily thanked.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury . 87
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
Seventh Meeting : 1st November, 1911.
Present : Mr. R. M. Laing, Vice-President, in the chair, unci seventy
others.
New Members. — Messrs. F. M. Corkill and J. T. McBride.
Papers. — 1. " Some Notes on the Botany of the Spenser Mountains,"
by K. M. Laing.
This paper was extensively illustrated with lantern-slides.
2. " The Methods of snaring Birds used bv the Maoris," bv J.
Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Abstract, with Notes on a Bird known to the Maoris as "Tiaka."
In August, 1911, I visited a Maori named Paitini, who lives at Ruatahuna, in
the heart of the Urewera country. He is nearly seventy years old, and the object
of my visit was to obtain from him, at first hand, information in regard to the
ancient methods of snaring birds, which he learnt when he was a boy, before guns
had come into general use for killing birds in that part of New Zealand. In con-
versation, he mentioned a bird, which he said was the same as the kakapo (Stringops
habroptilus), only smaller, called the tiaka. The Ven. Archdeacon Williams, ot
Gisborne, in his list of Maori bird-names in the " Journal of the Polynesian Society,"
December, 1906, gives " tiaka " as the name applied to the leader of a flight of
kakas [Nestor meridional is), but Paitini had another bird in his mind. When I
submitted Paitini 's statements to Mr. Elsdon Best he informed me that " tiaka " is
the name applied by North Island Maoris to the leader of a flock of kakapos. Each
flock, it is stated, had its " tiaka," which is believed to have been always a small bird.
It was supposed to lead or precede the flocks when they searched for food or returned
from their feeding-grounds. Mr. Best adds that it was also believed that at night
kakapos gathered at their wha.who.rua, or playground, where they went through a
performance like that of the American grouse, beating their wings on the ground.
The tiaka, apparently, was believed to be on guard, or was the manager, as it
walked around the edge of the place while the performance was held. Another
belief was that kakapos collected hinau and tawa berries and fern-root (aruhe), and
placed them in water-holes for future use. Maoris have told Mr. Best that kakapos
were formerly found on the ranges near Ohau, in the Horowhenua County, but
disappeared from there about three generations ago. They were also found on the
Whakatangata Range, in the densely wooded district north of Maunga-taniwha, west
of the headwaters of the Waiau tributary of the Wairoa River, a wild, broken,
forest country. Evidently, at one time, they were fairly plentiful in a large part
of the North Island, but disappeared from most of their haunts in that part of the
country before the arrival of Europeans. I am unable to supply any theory as to
the cause of their disappearance, which is a mystery.
Exhibits. — Mr. S. Page exhibited and described a collection of speci-
mens of native clematis, making special reference to the great variation
in the flowers and leaves of C . indivisa.
Dr. Moorhouse exhibited a specimen of the same species, showing
abnormal coloured growths due to parasitic fungi.
Annual Meeting : 6th December, 1911.
Present: Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and thirty others.
New Member. — Mr. T. Norris Baker.
Annual Report. — The annual report and balance-sheet for the year
were adppted.
Abstract.
The membership of the Institute has reached its highest for many years, and
the finances are in consequence in a healthy condition. The .Artesian Wells Com-
mittee has important results to show as the result of the energetic investigations of
88 Proceedings.
several of its members, and Dr. Hilgendorf will read to-night an instructive paper
on the variation of the wells near Lincoln. Messrs. George Gray and A. M. Wright
have also been conducting analyses of well-waters ; the height-observations have
been resumed at the Museum, and similar observations have been begun by Mr.
Langford P. Symes at Belfast, in order to measure the effect, if any, of the height
of the Waimakariri on the levels of the wells in that locality.
The readings at the Otira Tunnel are still being continued, with the assistance
of Mr. Manson of the Public Works Department, but at present they are not yielding
results of any striking interest.
Kapiti Island. — The Council has always considered it a duty to constantly urge
the importance of preserving the native fauna and flora of New Zealand, and when
it was suggested that Kapiti Island, one of the Dominion's sanctuaries, could with
advantage be used as a holiday resort for Wellington, the Council made strong-
representations to the Government as to the retrograde nature of the proposed step,
and had the satisfaction of eliciting from the acting Minister of Lands a statement
that it was not intended to interfere in any way with the position of the island as a
sanctuary.
Survey of the Continental Shelf. — The Council also urged on the Government
the desirability of using the s.y. "Terra Nova" in investigating the biological and
hydographical problems of the New Zealand continental shelf. Its representations
were not accepted, but it is to be hoped that the work which has been done by the
" Terra Nova " in the waters immediately to the north of New Zealand may result in
substantial additions to our scientific knowledge of the marine fauna of that area, as
well as to conduce to the safety of shipping between Australia and this country.
Library. — The library has been kept up to date as far as has been possible, and
the Council has been fully alive to the necessity of keeping up the Antarctic library,
and volumes have been added thereto by presentation and by purchase as the funds
have allowed. The most notable addition has been the reports of the Gauss Expedi-
tion, the expenditure on which has already exceeded £'40.
Meetings of the Institute. — Eight meetings of the Institute have been held during
the year, at which the average attendance has been sixty-six. At these, fourteen
papers embodying the results of original work have been received. These may be
classified as follows : Chemistry, 1 ; Zoology, 5 ; Botany, 4 ; Geology, 1 ; Mathe-
matics, Miscellaneous, 3. In order to provide members with information of more
general interest, the following addresses have been delivered during the year : "A
Study in Multiple Personality" (ex-Presidential address), by Mr. R. M. Laing ;
"The Natural History of Whales," by Mr. D. G. Lillie, biologist to the "Terra
Nova"; " Recent Advances in Radio-activity," by Mr. D. C. H. Florance ; "Bogs
and their Bearing on Climate," by Mr. R. Speight; " The Modification of Deep-sea
Fish to suit their Environment," by Mr. Edgar R. Waite ; " Profit-sharing," by Mr.
A. W. Beaven.
Membership. — During the year twenty-six members have been elected and four-
teen have resigned or been struck off, so that the number now stands at 183.
Balance-sfieet. — The balance-sheet shows a credit on the Institute's ordinary
account of £17 19s. 6d., in the hands of the London agent £29 14s., and in the
Tunnel Account £142 19s. lOd. A sum of £113 19s. lOd. has been spent on the
library, and £150 has been paid to the Government Printer on account of the ex-
penses in connection with the publishing the " Subantarctic Islands of New Zea-
land " ; the receipts for the year from the sale of the work has been £93 7s., and the
amount still owing to the Government Printer has been reduced to £350.
Election of Officers for 1912. — The following were elected officers :
President — Dr. L. Cockayne; Vice-Presidents — Mr. A. M. Wright,
Mr. S. Page; Hon. Secretary — Dr. C. Coleridge Farr ; Hon.
Treasurer — Mr. R. Speight; Hon. Librarian — Mr. Edgar R. Waite;
Council-Mr. J. Drummond, Mr. M. C. Gudex, Mr. P. H. Powell, Dr.
F. W. Hilgendorf, Mr. E. G. Hogg, Mr. R. M. Laing; representatives on
the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute — Dr. F. W. Hilgen-
dorf, Mr. R. Speight; Hon. Auditor— Mr. G. E. Way, F.I.A.N.Z.
Papers. — 1. " Fluctuations in the Water-level of some Artesian Wells
in the Christchurch Area," by Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf.
2. " Notes on New Zealand Fishes, Part III," by Edgar R. Waite.
3. " The Lower Waipara Gorge," by R. Speight.'
4. " Classification of Verse, Part II," by Johannes C. Andersen.
5. "On certain Tripolar Relations," by E. G. Hogg.
Otaao Institute. 89
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
Seventh Meeting : 7th November, 1911.
Present : Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair, and twenty others.
Papers. — 1. " On the Unconformable Relationship of the Lower
Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous Formations of New Zealand," by Pro-
fessor J. Park, F.G.S.
2. " On the Occurrence of Hydraulic Limestone on Otago Peninsula,"'
by Professor J. Park, F.G.S.
3. " Some Rare Basic Nepheline Rocks from Waihola and Omimi,"
by Professor P. Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S.
Exhibits. — Dr. Marshall exhibited portions of fossil remains of —
(1) a large fish, from the Chains Hills Tunnel; (2) Mauisaurus, from
Amuri Bluff; also original sketches by the late Major Heaphy, V.C.,
including portraits of Rauparaha and Rangihaeata.
Addresses. — -1. ' Protein-consumption in New Zealand," by Professor
J. Malcolm.
2. " The Habits of the Fern-bird," by Dr. R. V. Fulton.
Annual Meeting : 5th December, 1911.
Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair.
Annual Report. — The annual report and balance-sheet were adopted.
Abstract.
Work of the Council. — The Council has met ten times for the transaction of the
business of the Institute, of which the following is a summary : —
Your Council co-operated with the Canterbury Philosophical Institute in endea-
vouring to induce the Government to utilize the services of the "Terra Nova" in
exploring the continental shelf off the coast of New Zealand. A deputation from
the Council waited upon the Hon. J. A. Millar, Minister of Marine, on the occasion
of one of his visits to Dunedin, and placed before him the desires of your Council.
Your Council is pleased to report that the vessel was employed by the Government
in marine survey work in our northern waters, and the results of this work will
doubtless be made public in due time.
Your Council was approached in April last by the newly formed Dunedin Tech-
nological Society with a view to the latter body becoming amalgamated with, or
affiliated to, the Institute. The matter was carefully gone into by committees ap-
pointed by the two societies, and in the end the Technological Society accepted
affiliation to the Institute under the following conditions : (1) That the Institute
provide for a Technological Branch having control over its own lectures and pro-
ceedings, and with power to select a chairman and other officers to manage the same ;
(2) that the Institute set aside a reasonable sum per annum for the use of the Tech-
nological Branch. Your Council at a later stage empowered the branch to incur
expenses up to twenty guineas per annum without reference to the Council. This
branch of the Institute is to be congratulated on the vigour and enthusiasm with
which it has carried out its first year's programme, and at present it shows every
sign of developing into a permanent and successful feature of the Institute.
Later in the year your Council was approached in a similar way by the Otago
Astronomical Society. After a somewhat protracted consideration of the position by
90 Proceedings.
both bodies, this society has also become affiliated to the Institute, under practically
the same conditions as did the Technological Society, and now forms the Astro-
nomical Branch of the Otago Institute. The Astronomical Society's special equip-
ment fund, consisting of moneys specifically set apart for the purpose of buying
astronomical apparatus, has been maintained by your Council as an equipment fund
for the Astronomical Branch, and all future donations made towards this fund are
to be similarly set apart. Your Council has set apart a sum of £95 for the purpose
above specified.
As the financial position of the New Zealand Institute has latterly become a
matter of grave concern, your Council, at the invitation of that body, took steps to
enlist the sympathy and co-operation of the local members of the .Legislature in an
endeavour to procure an increased grant from the Government. Unfortunately, the
efforts of the members of Parliament who have had the matter in hand in Wellington
have not been successful. The Government, however, is to be approached again in
the matter next year.
During the year the Council took in hand the revision of the constitution and
rules of the Institute, and the results of its labours have been placed before the
Institute and formally adopted. Several new clauses have been added to the con-
stitution, the more important of them enabling the Institute to set up subcom-
mittees for the management of such branches as the Astronomical and Technological
Branches, and also to accept and set aside sums of money devoted to special purposes
within the scope of the Institute's objects.
Your Council contributed five guineas to the Anton Dohrn Memorial Fund, and
a similar amount to the Captain Cook Memorial Fund.
Towards the close of the year a subcommittee was appointed by the Council to
consider the question of securing for the Institute a suitable building in which it
might carry on its work more conveniently than at present, but no report from it has
yet been received.
Ordinary Meetings. — Papers and addresses have been given by the President
(Mr. A. Bathgate), Professor Malcolm, Dr. Fulton, Dr. S. Moore, and Messrs. G. W.
Howes, H. D. Skinner, G. E. Thompson, E. E. Stark, and D. L. Poppelwell. A
number of technical and scientific papers have been read and placed upon the table
for publication in the Transactions. Interesting exhibits have been shown by Mr.
Howes, Mr. Tannock, Professor Marshall, and Professor Benham.
In accordance with a custom that has obtained for some years past, your Council
invited Mr. R. Speight, F.G.S., of the Christchurch Museum, to deliver an address
before the members of the Institute. Mr. Speight chose for his subject "Remote
and Unknown Canterbury," and the lecture, which was well illustrated with fine
lantern-slides of the scenery of the high country in the Upper Rakaia basin, was
delivered in the Early Settlers' Hall to a large and appreciative audience.
Addresses have been delivered before the Technological Branch by Professor
Waters and Messrs. E. E. Stark, F. Oakden, F. W. Furkert, H. McRae, F. W.
Payne, and M. Elliot. The Rev. D. Dutton delivered an address to the Astronomical
Branch.
Membership. ■ — The current session has, consequent upon the affiliation of the
Technological and Astronomical Societies, witnessed an abnormally large increase in
the membership of the Institute. The number of members on the roll at the close
of last year was 134. During the year two members have resigned, and one member
(Mr. W. McLeod) has been removed by death. On the other hand, 125 new members
have joined the Institute, ninety of these coming in as members of the Technological
and twenty-two as members of the Astronomical Branch, so that the membership
now stands at 256. Five members of the Institute have during the year become
life members. At the meeting of the Institute held on the 6th June Miss Edith
Howes, of Gore, was elected an honorary member of the Institute in recognition of
the literary excellence and scientific accuracy of her recent publication, " The Sun's
Babies."
Library. — The Council have co-operated with the University Council in appoint-
ing Mr. H. D. Skinner to make a card catalogue of our library, which contains many
books also belonging to the University and to the Museum, and to rearrange the
books, which, owing to lack of room, have in several instances been placed tem-
porarily in shelves apart from their proper locations. This desirable work will be
carried on during the summer months.
Numerous additions by donation and purchase have been made during the year.
Balance-sheet. — The balance-sheet presented by the Treasurer (Mr. W. Fels)
showed a credit of £64 lis. Id. The receipts totalled £844 Is. lid., including sub-
scriptions amounting to £231. During the year a sum of 4'195 was placed on deposit
at call with Hallenstein Bros. (Limited).
Otago Institute. 91
Election of Officers for 1912. — President — Professor W. B. Benham,
D.Sc, F.R.S.; Vice-Presidents — Professor J. Malcolm, M.D., Mr. A.
Bathgate; Council — Dr. R. V. Fulton, Professor P. Marshall, D.Sc,
F.G.S., Professor D. B. Waters, Messrs. H. Brasch, F. W. Furkert,
G. E. Thompson, M.A., G. M. Thomson, M.P., F.L.S. ; Hon. Treasurer
— W. Felsj Hon. Secretary — E. J. Parr, M.A., B.Sc. ; Hon. Librarian —
Dr. Benham; Hon. Auditor — D. Brent, M.A. ; Governors of the New
Zealand Institute — Professor P. Marshall and Mr. G. M. Thomson.
TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.
Sixth Meeting : 17th October, 1911.
Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.
Mr. F. W. Payne gave an explanatory lecture on " Dredge-construc-
tion."
Seventh Meeting : 21st November, 1911.
Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.
Mr. Michael Elliot, Engineer to the Taieri Drainage Board, gave a
most interesting lecture on " Irrigation and Irrigation-works in Egypt."
After the lecture he exhibited some fine lantern-slides illustrating the engineering
methods used in the various constructions — the Assouan Dam, the ruins on the Island
of Philae, &c.
ASTRONOMICAL SECTION.
First Meeting : 9th October, 1911.
Rev. P. W. Fairclough in the chair.
The Rev. D. Dutton, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., gave an interesting address
on " The Sun."
The lecture was fully illustrated by lantern-slides of the sun, with its corona and
sun-spots, Jupiter, star-clusters, dead worlds, and worlds in the making.
92 Proceeding a.
HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
Fifth Meeting : 3rd November, 1911.
Dr. T. C. Moore, Vice-President, in the chair.
Address. — " Neglected Principles in Education," by Mr. W. Kerr,
M.A.
The paper dealt with the crowded syllabus, harmonious development, differential
education, methods of learning, and excessive correction.
Annual Meeting: 11th December, 1911.
Mr. Hill, B.A., President, in the chair.
New Members. — W. Oates, E. J. Humphreys, H. Bull, P. L. Poole.
Election of Officers for 1912. — President — Dr. T. C. Moore; Vice-
President — W. Kerr, M.A. ; Secretary — J. Niven, M.A., M.Sc. ; Trea-
surer— J. Wilson Craig; Council — H. Hill, B.A., W. Dinwiddie, G. K.
Sinclair, T. Hyde, G. Clark, W. Fossey; Auditor — J. S. Large;
Lanternist — -E. G. Loten; Library Committee — H. Hill, W. Dinwiddie;
representative on Board of Governors of New Zealand Institute — H. Hill,
B.A.
Annual Report. — The annual report and balance-sheet were read and
adopted.
Abstract.
Five meetings of the Institute and six meetings of the Council were held.
Six members were elected during the year. The membership now stands at
eighty.
Twenty-three new works were added to the library, and the shelving accommo-
dation was increased.
Four prizes were offered through the Agricultural and Pastoral Association for
collections of plants, shells, seaweeds, and insects.
The Institute has a credit balance of £26 6s. 7d.
Manawatu Philosophical Society.
MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Sixth Meeting : 10th November, 1911.
Captain Hewitt, R.N., in the chair.
The Chairman spoke of the removal of the Museum to the new pre-
mises, the use of which had been generously lent by the Borough Council,
and of the great assistance which Mr. Hamilton had given in the
arrangement of the collections.
Mr. Hamilton, after a brief reference to the history of the New Zea-
land Institute, and to the interest he had taken in the establishment
of the Palmerston Branch, gave a very interesting lecture, illustrated
by lantern-slides, on the " Arts and Crafts of the Maori."
He showed that the Maori, before the advent of the whites, was by no means —
in the dictionary sense of the word — a savage, but possessed considerable knowledge
not only of his own genealogies and tribal history, but also of natural history, astro-
nomy, and the white magic found among other nations. Nor were they naturally a
lazy race, but, apart from fighting, expended much time and labour on the cultiva-
tion of the ground and on the building and decoration of their houses and canoes,
in which they displayed not only great excellence of execution, but a remarkable
originality and absence of mechanical repetition in their designs. The education of
those fitted by birth and mental powers to receive it was provided for in three
"houses," in the first of which, open from dawn to noon, was taught genealogy and
matters relating to the gods and the laws of tapu ; in the second, open from noon
to sunset, all that related to war ; and in the third, open from dark to dawn, witch-
craft and black magic. The breaking-up of the old system on the coming of
Europeans and the destruction of the power of the chiefs had caused the loss of
nearly all the knowledge and most of the virtues of the Maori, the introduction of
money had done away with the necessity of labour, and European vices and clothing
had introduced many diseases ; but in the last ten years great improvements had
taken place, and the prospect for the future was much brighter.
After the lecture a cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Hamilton.
Annual Meeting : '28th November, 1911.
Captain Hewitt, R.N., in the chair.
Life Member. — In recognition of his services to the Society, Mr.
Kenneth Wilson was elected a life member.
Annual Report. — The report and balance-sheet for the year were
adopted.
Abstract.
During the year four members have resigned, and sixteen new members have
been elected, making our present number seventy-six.
The following papers were read during the year : " Report on Work at the
Observatory," Captain Hewitt, R.N. ; " Ramblings and a Little Philosophy," Mr.
H. T. B. Drew; "The Astronomical Structure of New Zealand Piperaceae,'" Miss
A. F. Ironside, M.A. ; " Some New Zealand Moths." Rev. A. Doull, M.A. ; " Moose
and Wapiti in New Zealand," Mr. R. Henry; "Pike as Health Officers," Mr. R.
Henry; "The Alpine Flora of New Zealand," Mr. Justice Chapman; " Notes on a
Specimen of Volcanic Rock from Mount Erebus," Miss Souper ; "Memory : What
is it? " Sir R. Stout, K.C.M.G. ; " Recent Local Weather," Mr. J. E. Vernon, M.A.,
B.Sc. ; " The Arts and Crafts of the Maori," Mr. A. Hamilton.
94 Proceedings.
The application for increased accommodation for the Museum, mentioned in last
year's report, has been successful, and the Borough Council has very generously
granted to the Society the use of the whole of the upper floor of the old Fire Brigade
Building, has made necessary alterations therein, and put the whole in a state of
thorough repair. Your Council has spent about £60 in providing the additional
furniture required in the new building. All the collections have now been removed
to the new building, and arranged and classified by Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of
the Dominion Museum. The Society is deeply indebted to him for his very valuable
help, to the borough authorities for the liberality with which they have met the
wishes of the Council, and to the Curator, Mr. Hirtzel, for the great amount of
care, time, and energy which he has given to the work of removal.
The Council specially desires to make the Museum illustrative of local products
and industries, and with a view thereto has obtained a collection of New Zealand
timber from Mr. Pegden and Messrs. Lewis and Kuhtze, with the promise of an
exhibit showing all the processes of the flax industry from the Flax -millers' Associa-
tion, one of wools from Messrs. Mellsop and Eliott, of New Zealand grasses from
Mr. T. W. Kirk, F.L.S., and of grains and seeds from Messrs. Barraud and Abraham
and Mr. Baylis of the Department of Agriculture. When all these are in place the
collection will be one of which, considering its youth, neither the Society nor the
town need be ashamed.
The balance-sheet shows that the receipts for the year amounted to £44 9s. Id.,
and the expenditure £110 4s. 9d. The assets are valued at £523 14s. 10d., while
the liabilities stand at £66 0s. 2d., leaving a balance in favour of the Society of
£455 14s. 8d.
Election of Officers for 1912. — President — Mr. R. Gardner; Vice-
Presidents — Messrs. J. L. Barnicoat and E. J. Armstrong, C.E.; Secre-
tary and Treasurer — Mr. K. Wilson, M.A.; Officer in Charge of the
Observatory — Captain Hewitt, R.N.; Council — Messrs. W. E. Bendall,
W. F. Durward, M. A. Eliott, F. Foote, B.Sc, R. McNab, and J. E.
Vernon, M.A. : Auditor — Mr. J. Mitchell.
Abstracts. 95
ABSTRACTS.
1. Monographic der Gattung Koeleria. By Dr. Karl Domin. With 22
plates and 3 maps. 4to. Stuttgart, 1907.
This elaborate monograph occupies four complete parts of Luersen's " Biblio-
theca Botanica," and covers more than 350 quarto pages. It is divided into three
main parts, the. first dealing with the history and morphology of the genus; the
second, which occupies by far the greater portion of the work, being devoted to the
systematic arrangement of the species and their varieties ; while the third is con-
cerned with the facts of geographical distribution and the probable phylogeny of
the species. The systematic portion is drawn up on most liberal lines. Previous
writers have treated Koeleria as a small genus containing considerably less than a
score of species. Hooker and Bentham, in the "Genera Plantarum," accepted
twelve species, and Hackel, in " Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien," only increased
the number to fifteen. But Dr. Domin describes no less than sixty-one, and even
then he is careful to state that several of these are "collective species,' and that
the full number is eighty-nine. Many of his " species " are further separated into
subspecies, varieties, subvarieties, forms, &c. As an instance of the laboriously
minute treatment adopted, it may be mentioned that the variable A', gracilis (the
K. cristata of most authors) is divided by Domin into fourteen subspecies. The
first of these is again separated into twelve groups, which are further split up into
forty-four varieties. Altogether, Domin describes rather more than 170 forms ot
Koeleria gracilis, his account of that species alone occupying sixty-five pages of his
monograph ! It may be asked to what extent a monograph of the New Zealand
species of Veronica would stretch if prepared on similar lines.
New Zealand botanists have been accustomed to include all our Koelerias within
the compass of a single species, which for many years was considered to be a form
of K. cristata. When preparing the Manual I followed Hackel's views in referring
our plant to a South American species distinguished by him as 7v . Kurtzii (equivalent
to K. Bergii Hierony. according to Domin) ; but Dr. Domin considers that we have
three endemic species in New Zealand. These he places with six South American,
two Australian, and two Asiatic species in a group to which he gives the name of
Dorsoaristatae. The following key to the New Zealand species is adapted from his
work : —
Awn dorsal.
Small, culms not creeping at the base ... 1. K. novozealandica.
Larger, culms creeping at the base ... 2. K. superb a.
Awn strictly terminal ... ... ... 3. A'. Gintlii.
The first of these species is based upon specimens collected by Dr. Cockayne in the
Otira Gorge ; K. superba was gathered by myself on the mountains above the Broken
River, Canterbury ; and K. Gintlii in the Hooker Valley, Mount Cook district.
Although it is impossible not to feel that the multiplication of species has been
carried to an inordinate degree, there are many points of excellence in Domin's
memoir ; and it can fairly be said that it contains much original work of a high
older, and that he has treated his subject in a most complete and exhaustive manner.
T. F. C.
2. Monographic der Gattung Taraxacum. By Dr. H. F. von Handel-
Mazetti. 4t<>. Leipzig, 1907.
In the "Genera Plantarum" Hooker and Bentham remarked that about forty
species of Taraxacum, had been described, and that some authors reduce these to
six. Hoffman, in "Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien," gave the number of valid
species at from twenty to twenty-five, and more recent writers have made various
estimates, ranging from twenty to forty-five. Dr. Handel-Mazetti, who is generally
acknowledged to be the leading authority on the genus, admits no less than
fifty-seven, contained in eleven sections. Forty-two of the species are found in Asia,
twenty-eight in Europe, three in Africa, six in North America, two in Australia, and
one in New Zealand (in addition to the introduced T . vulgare). The New Zealand
2 — Proceedings, pt. iii.
96 Proceedings.
species was first observed by Banks and Solander, who applied the manuscript name
of Leontodon glabratum to it. Hooker associated it with the introduced T. officinale
Wigg {T. vulgare Schrank). Kirk, in the "Students' Flora," separated it as a
variety, under the name of glabratus, while more recently Dr. Cockayne has given
it full specific honours as Taraxacum glabratum. Neither Kirk nor Cockayne appears
to have compared our plant with the South American T. magellanicum Comm., which
ranges from Chile to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands. Dr. Handel-Mazetti, how-
ever, has done this in a very complete manner, and has satisfactorily established the
identity of the two plants, which must in future bear the name of T . magellanicum.
He points out that T. magellanicum can be readily distinguished from T. vulgare
(T. officinale) by the outer bracts of the involucre being broad, conspicuously mar-
gined, and always erect and appressed. In T. vulgare the exterior bracts are linear,
not margined, and usually reflexed.
Dr. Handel-Mazetti's monograph must be regarded as an excellent example ol
careful and painstaking systematic work, and will probably long remain the standard
authority on the genus. T. F. C.
APPENDIX.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACTS.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903.
The following Act reconstituting the Institute was passed by Par-
liament : —
1903, No. 48.
An Act to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute.
[18th November, 1903.
Whereas it is desirable to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute with
a view to connecting it more closely with the affiliated institutions :
Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : —
1. The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute Act,
1903.
2. The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867, is hereby repealed.
3. (1.) The body hitherto known as the New Zealand Institute (here-
inafter referred to as "the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland
Institute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Insti-
tute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland
Institute, and such others as may hereafter be incorporated in accordance
with regulations to be made by the Board of Governors as hereinafter
mentioned.
(2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be
ipso facto members of the Institute.
4. The control and management of the Institute shall be in the hands
of a Board of Governors, constituted as follows : —
The Governor ;
The Colonial Secretary ;
Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council during
the month of December, one thousand nine hundred and three,
and two members to be similarly appointed during the month
of December in every succeeding year ;
Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies
at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during the
month of December in each alternate year;
One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated
societies during the month of December in each alternate year.
5. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council two
shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors ; the first two
members to retire shall be decided by lot, and thereafter the two mem-
bers longest in office without reappointment shall retire.
(2.) Subject to the provisions of the last preceding subsection, the
appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment
of their successors.
Neiu Zealand Institute Acts. 99
6. The Board of Governors as above constituted shall be a body cor-
porate, by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name
they shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue
and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and
hold lauds for the purposes hereinafter mentioned.
7. (1.) The Board of Governors shall have power to appoint a fit
person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all
necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to pro-
vide him with such further assistance as may be required.
(2.) It shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to
be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a com-
mittee to assist him in the work of editing the same.
(3.) It shall have power to make regulations under which societies
may become incorporated to the Institute, and to declare that any
incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations
are not complied with, and such regulations on being published in the
Gazette shall have the force of law.
(4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or
specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose
of them as it thinks fit.
(5.) The Board shall have control of the property hereinafter vested
in it, and of any additions hereafter made thereto, and shall make
regulations for the management of the same, for the encouragement
of research by the members of the Institute, and in all matters, speci-
fied or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the
Institute.
8. Any casual vacancy on the Board of Governors, howsoever
•caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority
that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if
not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board of
Governors.
9. (1.) The first annual meeting of the Board of Governors herein-
before constituted shall be held at Wellington on some day in the
month of January, one thousand nine hundred and four, to be fixed
by the Governor, and annual meetings of the Board shall be regularly
held thereafter during the month of January in each year, the date
and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual
meeting.
(2.) The Board of Governors may meet during the year at such other
times and places as it deems necessary.
(3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting
a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance-
sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the
Institute.
10. The Board of Governors may from time to time, as it sees fit,
make arrangements for the holding of general meetings of members of
the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of
scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion
of science in the colony by any means that may appear desirable.
11. The Colonial Treasurer shall, without further appropriation than
this Act, pay to the Board of Governors the annual sum of five hundred
pounds, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current
expenses of the Institute.
100 Appendix.
12. (1.) On the appointment of the first Board of Governors under
this Act the Board of Governors constituted under the Act hereby
repealed shall cease to exist, and the property then vested in, or belong-
ing to, or under the control of that Board shall be vested in His Majesty
for the use and benefit of the public.
(2.) On the recommendation of the President of the Institute the
Governor may at any time hereinafter, by Order in Council, declare that
any part of such property specified in the Order shall be vested in the
Board constituted under this Act.*
13. All regulations, together with a copy of the Transactions of the
Institute, shall be laid upon the table of both Houses of Parliament
within twenty days after the meeting thereof.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908
1908, No. 130.
An Act to consolidate certain Enactments of the General Assembly
relating to the New Zealand Institute.
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : —
1. (1.) The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute
Act, 1908.
(2.) This Act is a consolidation of the enactments mentioned in the
Schedule hereto, and with respect to those enactments the following pro-
visions shall apply : —
(a.) The Institute and Board respectively constituted under those
enactments, and subsisting on the coming into operation of this
Act, shall be deemed to be the same Institute and Board respec-
tively constituted under this Act without any change of consti-
tution or corporate entity or otherwise ; and the members
thereof in office on the coming into operation of this Act shall
continue in office until their successors under this Act come into
office.
(b.) All Orders in Council, regulations, appointments, societies incor-
porated with the Institute, and generally all acts of authority
which originated under the said enactments or any enactment
thereby repealed, and are subsisting or in force on the coming
into operation of this Act, shall enure for the purposes of this
Act as fully and effectually as if they had originated under the
corresponding provisions of this Act, and accordingly shall,
where necessary, be deemed to have so originated,
(c.) All property vested in the Board constituted as aforesaid shall
be deemed to be vested in the Board established and recognized
by this Act.
(d.) All matters and proceedings commenced under the said enact-
ments, and pending or in progress on the coming into opera-
tion of this Act, may be continued, completed, and enforced
under this Act.
See New Zealand Gazette, 1st September, 1904.
Neiu Zealand Institute Acts. 101
2. (1.) The body now known as the New Zealand Institute (herein-
after referred to as " the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Insti-
tute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland
Institute, and such others as heretofore have been or may hereafter be
incorporated therewith in accordance with regulations heretofore made
or hereafter to be made by the Board of Governors.
(2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso
facto members of the Institute.
3. The control and management of the Institute shall be vested in a
Board of Governors (hereinafter referred to as " the Board "), constituted
as follows : —
The Governor :
The Minister of Internal Affairs :
Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council, of
whom two shall be appointed during the month of December
in every year :
Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies
at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during
the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next
year in which such an appointment shall be made is the
year one thousand nine hundred and nine :
One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated
societies during the month of December in each alternate
year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall
be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine.
4. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council, the
two members longest in office without reappointment shall retire annually
on the appointment of their successors.
(2.) Subject to the last preceding subsection, the appointed members
of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors.
5. The Board shall be a body corporate by the name of the " New
Zealand Institute," and by that name shall have perpetual succession
and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and
authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the purposes hereinafter
mentioned.
6. (1.) The Board shall have power to appoint a fit person, to be
known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary
work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to provide him
with such further assistance as may be required.
(2.) The Board shall also appoint the President or some other fit
person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint
a committee to assist him in the work of editing the same.
(3.) The Board shall have power from time to time to make regu-
lations under which societies may become incorporated with the
Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be
incorporated if such regulations are not complied with ; and such regu-
lations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law.
(4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books
or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and
dispose of them as it thinks fit.
(5.) The Board shall have control of the property from time to time
vested in it or acquired by it ; and shall make regulations for the
102 Ajjpendix.
management of the same, and for the encouragement of research by the
members of the Institute ; and in all matters, specified or unspecified,
shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute.
7. (1.) Any casual vacancy in the Board, howsoever caused, shall be
filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed
the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that
time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board.
(2.) Any person appointed to fill a casual vacancy shall only hold
office for such period as his predecessor would have held office under
this Act.
8. (1.) Annual meetings of the Board shall be held in the month of
January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be
fixed at the previous annual meeting.
(2.) The Board may meet during the year at such other times and
places as it deems necessary.
(3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the
meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and
a balance-sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf
of the Institute.
9. The Board may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrange-
ments for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute,
at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers,
the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in New
Zealand by any means that may appear desirable.
10. The Minister of Finance shall from time to time, without further
appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board the sum of five hundred
pounds in each financial year, to be applied in or towards payment of the
general current expenses of the Institute.
11. Forthwith upon the making of any regulations or the publica-
tion of any Transactions, the Board shall transmit a copy thereof to the
Minister of Internal Affairs, who shall lay the same before Parliament if
sitting, or if not, then within twenty days after the commencement of the
next ensuing session thereof.
Schedule.
Enactments consolidated.
1903, No. 48.— The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903.
REGULATIONS.
The following are the regulations of the New Zealand Institute under
the Act of 1903 :— *
The word "Institute" used in the following regulations means the
New Zealand Institute as constituted by the New Zealand Institute
Act, 1903.
Incokporation of Societies.
1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the pro-
visions of the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903, unless such society shall
consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate
* New Zealand Gazette, 14th July, 1904.
Regulations. 103
a sum of not less than £25 sterling annually for the promotion of art,
science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to
be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors
of the Institute by the President for the time being of the society.
2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated
with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society
shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money
annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less
than £25.
3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall
provide for the expenditure of not less than one -third of the annual
revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public
museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not
less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main-
tenance of the New Zealand Institute.
4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year
fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Eegulation No. 3
aforesaid in manner provided shall from henceforth cease to be incor-
porated with the Institute.
Publications.
5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated
with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti-
tute, and then may be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the
Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute
regarding publications : —
(a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of —
(1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies
for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be
intituled "Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute";
(2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the
incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as here-
inafter mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of
Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to
be intituled " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."
(6.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be
published.
(c.) Papers not recommended for publication may be returned to their
authors if so desired.
(d.) All papers sent in for publication must be legibly written, type-
written, or printed.
(e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each societv
towards the cost of publishing Proceedings and Transactions
of the Institute.
(/.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor-
tional number of copies of the Transactions and Proceedings
of the New Zealand Institute, to be from time to time fixed
by the Board of Governors.
Management of the Pkoperty of the Institute.
6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor-
porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested
in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of
104 Appendix.
Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the
property of the Institute.
7. All donations by societies, public Departments, or private indi-
viduals to the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of
receipt, and shall be entered in the books of the Institute provided for
that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may
direct.
Honorary Members.
8. The Board of Governors shall have power to elect honorary
members (being persons not residing in the Colony of New Zealand), pro-
vided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed
thirty.
9. In case of a vacancy in the list of honorary members, each incor-
porated society, after intimation from the Secretary of the Institute, may
nominate for election as honorary member one person.
10. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated,
together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members
is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the President of the
New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors
at the next succeeding meeting.
General Begulations.
11. Subject to the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, and to the
foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be
entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws
for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs.
12. Upon application signed by the President and countersigned by the
Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under
Begulation No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under
the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the fore-
going regulations of the Institute are complied with by the society.
13. In voting on any subject the President is to have a deliberate as
well as a casting vote.
14. The President may at any time call a meeting of the Board, and
shall do so on the requisition in writing. of four Governors.
15. Twenty-one days' notice of every meeting of the Board shall be
given by posting the same to each Governor at an address furnished by
him to the Secretary.
16. In case of a vacancy in the office of President, a meeting of
the Board shall be called by the Secretary within twenty-one days to
elect a new President.
17. The Governors for the time being resident or present in Wellington
shall be a Standing Committee for the purpose of transacting urgent
business and assisting the officers.
18. The Standing Committee may appoint persons to perform the
duties of any other office which may become vacant. Any such appoint-
ment shall hold good until the next meeting of the Board, when the
vacancy shall be filled.
19. The foregoing regulations may be altered or amended at any
annual meeting, provided that notice be given in writing to the Secretary
of the Institute not later than the 30th November.
Hut ton Memorial Fund. 105
THE HUTTON MEMOEIAL MEDAL AND EESEAECH FUND.
Eesolved by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute
that —
1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the committee of
subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called " The Hutton
Memorial Eesearch Fund," in memory of the late Captain Frederick
Wollaston Hutton, F.E.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub-
scribed and granted for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all
other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose.
2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of
Governors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys,
and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-
moneys.
3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze
medal to be known as " The Hutton Memorial Medal."
4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as aforesaid as may be approved of by
the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment
shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund.
5. The Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded from time to time
by the Board of Governors, in accordance with these regulations, to
persons who have made some noticeable contribution in connection with
the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.
6. The Board shall make regulations setting out the manner in which
the funds shall be administered. Such regulations shall conform to the
terms of the trust.
7. The Board of Governors may, in the manner prescribed in the
regulations, make grants from time to time from the accrued interest to
persons or committees who require assistance in prosecuting researches
in the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.
8. There shall be published annually in the " Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute " the regulations adopted by the Board as afore-
said, a list of the recipients of the Hutton Memorial Medal, a list of the
persons to whom grants have been made during the previous year, and
also, where possible, an abstract of researches made by them.
Eegulations undeb which the Hutton Memorial Medal shall be
awarded and the eesearch fund administered.
1. Unless in exceptional circumstances, the Hutton Memorial Medal
shall be awarded not oftener than once in every three years ; and in no
case shall any medal be awarded unless, in the opinion of the Board,
some contribution really deserving of the honour has been made.
2. The medal shall not be awarded for any research published previous
to the 31st December, 1906.
3. The research for which the medal is awarded must have a distinct
bearing on New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology.
4. The medal shall be awarded only to those who have received the
greater part of their education in New Zealand or who have resided in
New Zealand for not less than ten years.
5. Whenever possible, the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.
106 Appendix.
6. The Board of Governors may, at an annual meeting, make grants
from the accrued interest of the fund to any person, society, or commit-
tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany,
or geology.
7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the
30th September.
8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference
to such persons as are denned in regulation 1.
9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the
31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the
grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the
research.
10. The results of researches aided by grants from the fund shall,
where possible, be published in New Zealand.
11. The Board of Governors may from time to time amend or alter
the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con-
formity with resolutions 1 to 4.
Award of the Hutton Memorial Medal.
1911. Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc. F.R.S., University of Otagu—
For researches in New Zealand zoology.
Grant from the Hutton Memorial Research Fund.
1911. To Professor C. Chilton, Canterbury College — £10 for the
preparation of illustrations for a revision of the Crustacea of New
Zealand.
HECTOR MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND.
Declaration of Trust.
This deed, made the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand nine
hundred and twelve, between the New Zealand Institute, a body corporate
duly incorporated by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, of the one
part, and the Public Trustee, of the other part : Whereas the New
Zealand Institute is possessed of a fund consisting now of the sum of
one thousand and forty-five pounds ten shillings and twopence (£1,013
10s. 2d.), held for the purpose of the Hector Memorial Research Fund
on the terms of the rules and regulations made by the Governors of the
said Institute hereinafter set forth : And whereas the said money has
been transferred to the Public Trustee for the purposes of investment,
and the Public Trustee now holds the same for such purposes, and it
is expedient to declare the trusts upon which the same is held by the
Public Trustee :
Now this deed witnesseth that the Public Trustee shall hold the said
moneys, and all other moneys which shall be handed to him by the said
Governors, for the same purposes upon trust from time to time, to
invest the same in the common fund of the Public Trust Office, and to
hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes set out in the
said rules hereinafter set forth.
Hector Memorial Research Fund. 107
And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee
to pay, and he shall pay, all or any of the said moneys, both principal
and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Institute upon
being directed so to do by a resolution of the Governors of the said
Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Institute,
enclosing a copy of such resolution, certified by him and by the President
as correct, shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee of the due
passing of such resolution : And upon receipt of such letter and copy,
the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Institute shall
be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee : And in no case shall
the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the administration of
the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute.
As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year first
hereinbefore written.
Rules and Regulations made by the Governors of the New Zealand
Institute in relation to the Hector Memorial Research Fund.
1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington
Hector Memorial Committee be called " The Hector Memorial Research
Fund," in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed and granted for the
purpose of the memorial, and all other funds which may be given or
granted for the same purpose.
2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Go-
vernors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and may
invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.
3. A sum not exceeding one hundred pounds (£100) shall be expended
in procuring a bronze medal, to be known as " The Hector Memorial
Medal."
4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board
of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be
used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund.
5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually
by the Board of Governors.
6. The research for which the medal and prize are awarded must
have a distinct bearing on New Zealand — (1) Botany, (2) chemistry,
(3J ethnology, (4) geology, (5) physics (including mathematics and as-
tronomy), (6) zoology (including animal physiology).
7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.
The seal of the New Zealand Institute was hereto affixed, the 27th day
of January, 1912, in the presence of —
T. F. Cheeseman, President.
B. C. Aston, Secretai-y.
Signed by Frederick Fitchett, the Public Trustee, and sealed with the
seal of his office.
Award of the Hector Memorial Research Fund.
1912. L. Cockayne, Ph.D. — For researches in New Zealand botany.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OP THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED
THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867 ; RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OP THE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY OP NEW ZEALAND UNDER THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
ACT, 1903, AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.
A.
Board of Governors.
EX OFFICIO.
His Excellency the Governor.
The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs.
NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT.
Hamilton, F.L.S. (December, 1911); B. Tregear, F.E.G.S.
(December, 1910) ; John Young, (December, 1911) ; Charles A.
Ewen (December, 1910).
ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES (DECEMBER, 1911).
Wellington Philosophical Society
Auckland Institute .. .
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.
Otago Institute
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute .
Nelson Institute
Manawatu Philosophical Society
Wanganui Philosophical Society
Martin Chapman, K.C.
Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A.
D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.
J. Stewart, C.E.
F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., D.Sc.
B. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.
Professor Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S.
G. M. Thomson, M.P., F.C.S.
H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.
L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S.
K. Wilson, M.A.
W. Hesse, B.A.
OFFICERS FOR THlf YEAR 1912.
President: T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S, F.Z.S.
Hon. Treasurer: C. A. Ewen.
Joiht Hon. EmTORs:]^ %«&}■ M.A M.Sc, F.G.S.
(F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A, D.Sc.
Secretary: B. C. Aston, F.I.C, F.C.S.
(Box 40, Post-office, Wellington.)
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.
Wellington Philosophical Society
Auckland In stitute
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury
Otago Institute
Westland Institute
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute
Southland Institute
Nelson Institute
Manawatu Philosophical Society
Wanganui Philosophical Society
DATE OF AFFILIATION.
10th June, 1868.
10th June, 1868.
22nd October, 1868.
18th October, 1869.
21st December, 1874.
31st March, 1875.
21st July, 1880.
20th December, 1883.
16th January, 1904.
25th January, 1912.
Former Honorary Members.
109
FORMER HONORARY MEMBERS.
1870.
Agassiz, Professor Louis.
Drury, Captain Byron, R.N.
Flower, Professor W.H., P.R.S.
Hoohstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von.
Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S., O.M.
Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S.,
C.M.G.
Owen, Professor Riohard, F.R.S.
Richards, Rear- Admiral G. H.
Darwin, Charles, M.A., F.R.S.
Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Grey, Sir George, K.C.B.
Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S.
1871.
Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1872.
I Stokes, Vice- Admiral J. L.
Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G.C.M.G.
Cambridge, the Rev. O. Piokard, M.A.,
C.M.Z.S.
1873.
Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.
McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S.
Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.
Filhol, Dr. H.
Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S.
Baird, Professor Spenoer F.
Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S.
Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S.
1874.
Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S.
1875.
| Rolleston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S.
1876.
| Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S.
1877.
| Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G.
1878.
Tenison- Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S.
1880.
The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G.C.M.G.
Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S.
Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.
Gray, Professor Asa.
1883.
Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S.
1885.
| Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.R.S.
110 Appendix.
1888.
Beneden, Professor J. P. van. j McCoy, Professor F., D.Sc, C.M.G.
Ettingshausen, Baron von. P.R.S.
1890.
Riley, Professor C. V.
1891.
Davis, J. W., P.G.S., F.L.S.
1895.
Mitten William, F.R.S.
1896.
Langley, S. P.
1900.
Agardh, Dr. J. G.
....
1901.
Eve, H. W., M.A. | Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S.
FORMER MANAGER AND EDITOR.
[Under the New Zealand Institute Act, 1867.]
1867-1903.
Hector, Sir James, M.D.. K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
PAST PRESIDENTS.
1903-4.
Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S.
1905-6.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G.. F.R.S.
1907-8.
Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.C.S., M.P.
1909-10.
A. Hamilton, F.L.S.
1911-12.
T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
1870.
Finsch, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Brnunschweig, Germany.
1873.
Gunther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Litchfield Road, Kew Gardens, Surrey.
Honorary Members. Ill
1875.
■
Sclater, Philip Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Zoological Society, Loudon.
1876.
Berggren, Dr. S., Lund, Sweden.
1877.
Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge.
1885.
Wallace, A. K., F.R.S., O.M.. Broadstone, Wimborne, England.
1890.
Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Uni-
versity of Lund, Sweden.
Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., P.R.S.,
Lot don.
1891.
Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
1894.
Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiselton, K.C.M.G., I Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst
CLE., LL.D., M.A., P.R.S., Royal Rectory, Sussex, England.
Gardens, Kew.
1896.
Lydekker, Richard, B.A., F.R.S., British Museum, South Kensington.
1900.
Avebury, Lord, P.O., F.R.S., High Elms, I Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Royal
Farnborougb, Kent. Botanic Gardens, Kew.
1901.
Goebel, Professor Dr. Carl von, University of Munich.
1902.
Sars, Professor G. O., University of Christiania, Norway.
1903.
Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada.
1904.
Rutherford, Professor E., D.Sc, F.R.S., I David, Professor T. Edgeworth, F.R.S.,
University of Manchester. Sydney University, N.S.W.
1906.
Beddard, F. E., F.R.S., Zoological
Society, London.
Milne, J., F.R.S., Isle of Wight, England.
Brady, G. S., F.R.S., University of Dur-
ham, England.
1907.
Dendy, Dr., F.R.S., King's College,
University of London, England.
Diels, Professor L., Ph.D., University of
Marburg.
Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough
College, England.
Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S.. Tun-
bridge Wells, England.
Darwin, Sir Geobge, F.R.S., Cambridge.
1910. *y;^|
Bruce, Dr. W. S., Edinburgh. <^«-^
112
Appendix.
ORDINARY MEMBBES.
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life members, f
Adams, C. E., M.Sc, A. I. A.,
F.R.A.S., Lands and Survey De-
partment, Government Buildings
Adams, C. W., Bellevue Road,
Lower Hutt
Adkin, G. Leslie, Queen Street,
Levin
Anderson, W. J., M.A., LL.D.,
Education Department, Govern-
ment Buildings
Aston, Eev. A. E., Devon Street
Aston, B. C, F.C.S., F.I.C., Devon
Street
Atkinson, E. H., care of Tudor
Atkinson, Wellington
Baldwin, E. S., care of Baldwin
and Ray ward, Lambton Quay
Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc, Geological
Survey, Government Buildings
Beetham, W. H., Masterton
Bell, E. D., care of Bell, Gully,
Bell, and Myers
Bell, H. D., K.C., care of Bell, Gully,
Bell, and Myers
Berry, C. G. G., 35 Bolton Street
Birks, L., B.Sc, A.M. Inst. C.E. and
E.C., Public Works Department
Blair, J. R., The Terrace
Brandon, A. de B., B.A., care of
Brandon, Hislop, and Brandon
Browne, M. H., Education Depart-
ment, Government Buildings
Campbell, J., Government Archi-
tect, Wellington
Campbell, 0. N., Rangitaiki Drain-
age-works, Matata
Carter, F. J., M.A., Diocesan
Office
Carter, W. H., jun., 4 Mowbray
Street
Chapman, Martin, K.C., Brandon
Street
Christie, Mrs. H. M., 182 Moxham
Avenue, Kilbirnie
Chudleigh, E. R., Orongomairoa,
Waihou
Climie, J. D., Lower Hutt
Cotton, C. A., M.Sc, Victoria Col-
lege
Honorary members.]
Crawford, A. D., Box 126
Crewes, Rev. J., 90 Owen Street
Dymock, E. R., Woodward Street
Easterfield, Professor T. H., M.A.,
Ph.D., 17 Talavera Terrace
Ewen, C. A., The Terrace
Ferguson, W., M.Inst. C.E. , 99 Hill
Street
FitzGerald, Gerald, A. M.Inst. C.E. ,
Brandon Street
Fleming, T. R., M.A., LL.B., Edu-
cation Board, Mercer Street
Fletcher, Rev. H. J., The Manse,
Taupo
Freeman, H. J., Manners Stree
Freyberg, Cuthbert, Tourist Dep rt-
ment
Garrow, Professor J. M. E., B.A.,
LL.B., Victoria College
Gifford, A. C, M.A., Shannon
Street*
Girdlestone, H. E., Lands and Sur-
vey Department, Government
Buildings
Godley, Major- General A. I., Ori-
ental Bay
Graham, K. M., A. O.S.M., Defence
Department
Gray, William, M.A., B.Sc, Pres-
byterian College, Melbourne
Hamilton, A., F.L.S., Dominion
Museum t
Hanify, H. P., Panama Street
Harding, R. Coupland, care of
Evening Post
Hart, H. S., care of Diamond and
Hart, Taranaki Street
Hastie, Miss J. A., care of Street and
Co., 30 Cornhill, London E.C.*
Hay, F. C, A.M. Inst. C.E., Public
Works Department
Heard, Colonel E. S., Oriental Ter-
race
Hector, Dr. CM., Lower Hutt
Helyer, Miss E., 13 Tonks Grove
Henderson, Dr. J., Geological Sur-
vey
Hogben, G., M.A., F.G.S., Educa-
tion Board, Government Buildings
Boll of Members.
113
Holmes, E. W., M.Inst.C.E., Public
Works Department, Government
Buildings
Holmes, R. L., F.R.Met.Soc, Bau,
Fiji*
Hooper, Captain G. S., Grant Road
(North)
Howlett, W. F., B.A. (Oxon), Tane,
Eketahuna
Hudson, G. V., F.E.S., Hill View,
Karori
Hunter, Professor T. A., M.A.,
M.Sc., Victoria College
Hislop, J., Department of Internal
Affairs, Government Buildings
Hector, B., Lower Hutt
Izard, Dr. A. W., Murphy Street
James, H. L., B.A., Khandallah
Johnson, Hon. G. R., care of Martin
Chapman, Brandon Street"
Jones, Rev. J., Lower Hutt
Joseph, Joseph, Grant Road
Kennedy, Rev. D., D.D., F.R.A.S.,
St. Patrick's College
King, Thomas, F.R.A.S., 58 Ellice
Street"
Kingsley, R. J., Collingwood Street,
Nelson
Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A., Vic-
toria College
Krull, F. A., Wanganui
Laby, Professor T. H., B.A., Vic-
toria College
La Trobe, W. S., M.A., Technical
School
Levi, P., M.A., care of Wilford and
Levi
Lewis, J. H., Public Works Depart-
ment, Greymouth
Liffiton, E. N., F.I.A.,N.Z., Wa-
nganui
Lomax, Major H. A., "Araruhe,"
Aramoho, Wanganui
Lomas, E. K., M.A., M.Sc, Train-
ing College
Ludford, E. J., care of Ross and
Glendining (Limited)
Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E., Har-
bour Board
Mason, Mrs. K., Queenstown, Lake
Wakatipu
Mason, Dr. J. M., M.D., F.C.S.,
D.P.H. (Camb.), Barrister-at-
Law, Lower Hutt
Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E., care
of W. E. Bethune, Featherston
Street
Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E., 139
Sydney Street
Moore, G., Eparaima, via Master-
ton. Address during session,
Legislative Council
Moorhouse, W. H. S., 134 Dixon
Street
Morgan, P. G., M.A., Geological
Survey, Government Buildings
Morison, C. B., Featherston Street
Morton, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., Town
Hall
Myers, Miss P., B.A., 26 Fitzher-
bert Terrace
Mackenzie, J., Karori
Mackenzie, Professor H., M.A.,
Victoria College
Maclaurin, J. S., D.Sc. F.C.S.,
Dominion Laboratory, Sydney
Street
McKenzie, Donald, Carnarvon,
Feilding
Macdonald, J. W., Public Trust
Office
Newman, Dr. A. K., M.B., M.R.C.P.,
M.P., 56 Hobson Street
Oram, M. H., M.A., LL.B., Wel-
lington College
Orr, R., care of Travers, Campbell,
and Peacock, Featherston Street
Patterson, H., Public Works De-
partment, Cass
Pearce, A. E., care of Levin and Co.
(Limited)
Phillips, Coleman, Carterton
Phipson, P. B., care of J. Staples
and Co. (Limited)
Picken, Professor D. K, M.A., 16
Kelburne Parade
Pomare, Dr. M., M.P.
Powles, C. P., 219 Lambton Quay
Poynton, J. W., The Treasury
Parry, E., Public Works Depart-
ment
Porteous, J. S., Brandon Street
Reid, W. S., 189 The Terrace
Renner, F. M., M.A., Wellington
College
Robertson, J. B., Public Works De-
partment
Roy, R. B., Taita*
114
Appendix.
Salmond, J. W., M.A., Crown Law
Office, Government Buildings
Sims, T., Cuba Street
Sladden, H., Lower Hutt
Smith, M. Crompton, District Sur-
vey Office, Government Insurance !
Buildings
Spencer, W. E., M.A., M.Sc, Edu-
cation Department, Government
Buildings
Stewart, J. T., 21 Plymouth Street,
Wanganui
Strachan, J. B., District Survey
Office, Government Insurance
Buildings
Strauchon, J., Lands and Survey
Department, Government Build-
ings
Stuckey, F. G. A., M.A., Island Bay
School
Sunley, R. M., Karori
Swan, W. G. Collington, Public
Works Department, Government
Buildings
Tennant, J. S., M.A., B.Sc, Train-
ing College
Thomson, G. Stuart, Hamilton
Road, Kilbirnie
Thomson, J., B.E., M.Inst.C.E.,
Brooklyn
Thomson, J. Allan, B.Sc, Geo-
logical Survey, Government
Buildings
Tolley, H. R., 34 Wright Street
Tombs, H. H., Burnell Avenue
Tripe, J. A., B.A., LL.B., Grey
Street
Turnbull, A. H., care of W. and G.'
Turnbull and Co.
Turnbull, J. U., care of W. and G.
Turnbull and Co.
Turner, E. Phillips, Lands and
Survey Department, Government
Buildings
Von Zedlitz, Professor G. W., M.A.,
Victoria College
Ward, Thomas, A.M.Inst. C.E.,
Grey Street
Wilson, Miss J. A.. Dominion Mu-
seum
Wilson, J. G., Bulls
Wilton, G. W., 61 Cuba Street
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
[* Honorary and
Aickin, G., Queen Street, Auckland
Aldis, M., care of Neumegen and j
Mowlem, Shortland Street, Auck-
land
Alexander, L. W., P.O. Box 816,
Auckland
Arey, W. E., Shortland Street, ;
Auckland
Arnold, C, Swanson Street, Auck-
land
Bagnall, L. J., O'Rorke Street,
Auckland
Ball, W.T., Mount Eden, Auckland
Bankart, A. T., care of Campbell-
Ehrenfried Company, Queen
Street, Auckland
Bartley, E., Royal Insurance Build-
ings, Queen Street, Auckland
Bassett, T., Onehunga
Bates, T. L., Station Street, Wara-
tah, Newcastle, New South Wales"
Batger, J., Mount Eden Road, j
Auckland
life members.]
Benjamin, E. D., L. D. Nathan and
Co., Shortland Street, Auckland
Bloomfield, W. R., Owen's Road,
Mount Eden
Brett, H., Shortland Street, Auck-
land
Briffault, R., M.B., Mount Eden
Road, Auckland
Broun, Major T., Mount Albert,
Auckland
Brown, Professor F. D., University
College, Auckland
Buchanan, A., Victoria Avenue,
Remuera
Buddie, J. H., care of Brown and
Stewart, Swanson Street, Auck-
land
Buddie, T., Wyndham Street, Auck-
land
Burgess, E. W., Harbour Board
Offices, Auckland
Burns, R., Custom Street East,
Auckland
Boll of Members.
115
Burnside, W., Education Offices,
Auckland
Burton, Colonel, The Grove, Brank-
some Park, Bournemouth, Eng-
land*
Bush, W. E.,C.E., Municipal Build-
ings, Auckland
Buttle, J., New Zealand Insurance
Company, Queen Street, Auck-
land
Cameron, R., Savings-bank, Queen
Street, Auckland
Campbell, Sir J. L., Shortland
Street, Auckland
Cheal, P. E., Upper Queen Street,
Auckland
Cheeseman, T. F., Museum, Princes
Street, Auckland
Choyce, H. C, Remuera Boad,
Remuera
Clark, A., Wellesley Street, Auck-
land
Clark, A. W., care of P. Hansen
and Co., Queen Street, Auckland
Clark, A., M.B., Ellerslie
Clark, H. C, Wellesley Street,
Auckland
Clark, M. A., Wellesley Street,
Auckland
Clarke, E. de C, University Col-
lege, Auckland
Clarke, W. St. John, Electric Tram
Company, Auckland
Coates, T., Orakei
Cochrane, W. S., Shortland Street,
Auckland
Coe, James, Mount Eden Road,
Auckland
Cole, W., Mount Eden Road, Auck-
land
Coleman, W., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Combes, F. H., Victoria Avenue,
Remuera
Cooper, C, Bourne Street, Mount
Eden
Cooper, Mr. Justice, Judge's Cham-
bers, Wellington
Cottrell, A. J., Training College,
Wellesley Street, Auckland
Cousins, H. C, Normal School,
Wellesley Street, Auckland
Court, G., Karangahape Road, Auck-
land
Court, J., Ponsonby, Auckland
Craig, J. J., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Cranweil, R., Crescent Road, Par-
nell
Crosher, W., Devonport
Crossley, Rt. Rev. Lloyd, Bishops-
court, Parnell
Cufi', J. C, F.S.A., Emerald Hill,
Epsom
Daw, A. G., Victoria Arcade, Queen
Street, Auckland
Dearsly, H., Box 488, G.P.O.,
Auckland
De Clive Lowe, G. T. H., L.R.C.P.,
27 Symonds Street, Auckland
Dettmann, Professor H. S., Univer-
sity College, Auckland
Devereux, H. B., Waihi
Devore, A. E. T., Wyndham Street,
Auckland
Dickenson, J. C, Public School,
Ponsonby
Douglas, W. S., Herald Office,
Queen Street, Auckland
Downard, F. N. R.,Pahi, Kaipara
Duthie, D. W., National Bank of
New Zealand, Queen Street, Auck-
land
Dunnet, G., Rocklands, Epsom
Earl, F., Swanson Street, Auckland
Edson, J., Queen Street, Auckland
Egerton, Professor C. W., University
College, Auckland
Elliott, G., Bank of New Zealand
Buildings, Queen Street, Auck-
land
Ellis, J. W., Hamilton, Waikato
Ellison, T., Papatoetoe
Ewington, F. G., Durham Street,
Auckland
Fairclough, W. A., Watson's Build-
ings, Queen Street, Auckland
Favell, Rev. H. A., Picton Street
Auckland
Fenwick, G.,Cargen, Eden Crescent,
Auckland
Finch, F., Harbour Board Offices,
Auckland
Finlayson, T., Sargood and Son,
Victoria Street, Auckland
Florance, R. S., Blenheim
Fowlds, Hon. G., Queen Street,
Auckland
116
Appendix .
Garrard, G. W., Education Office. Horton, H., Herald Office, Queen
Auckland
Street, Auckland
George, G., Technical College, Wei- ' Houghton, C. V., Quay Street,
leslev Street, Auckland
Auckland
Gerard, G., Custom Street East, i Inglis, Dr. E. T., Maroondah, Pon-
Auckland
sonby Eoad, Auckland
Gilbert, T., Manukau Eoad, Parnell i Jarman, Professor A., Waihi
Girdler, Dr., Khyber Pass Eoad, ; Johnson, H. D., Maungahenga, Te
Auckland
Aroha
Goldie, D., Breakwater Eoad, Auck- Johnstone, Hally burton, Howick
land
Gordon, H. A., Eanfurly Eoad,
Epsom
Gorrie, H. T., A. Buckland and
Sons, Albert Street, Auckland
Graham, G., Tudor Street, Devon-
port
Grant, Miss J., Devonport
Gray, S., Mount Eden Borough
Offices, Mount Eden
Guinness, Dr. W., Devonport
Gunson, J. H., Custom Street East,
Auckland
Jones, H. W., Public School, Papa-
kura
Kenderdine, J., Sale Street, Auck-
land
Kronfeldt, G., Custom Street, Auck-
land
Lamb, S. E., University College,
Auckland
Langguth, E., Custom Street West,
x\uckland
Lennox, J. M., Eemuera
Lennox, N. G., care of Auckland
Institute, Auckland:,:
Gunson, E. W., Custom Street Leys, T. W., Star Office, Shortland
East, Auckland
Haines, H., F.E.C.S., Shortland
Street, Auckland
Street, Auckland
Lindsay, Dr. P. A., O'Eorke Street,
Auckland
Hall, E., Agricultural Association, ! Lunn, A. G., Collins Bros., Wynd-
Auckland
ham Street, Auckland
Hall, J. W., Victoria Avenue, Macfarlane, T., C.E., Municipal
Eemuera
Hall, E., Eemuera
Offices, Auckland
McLean, M., Otira, Westland
Hamer, W. H., C.E., Harbour McDowell, Dr. W. C, Eemuera
Board Offices, Auckland
Hansen, P. M., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Harding, A. B., Te Papapa, One-
hunga
Hay, D. A., Montpellier Nurseries,
Eemuera
Hazard, W. H., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Heaton, F., Grammar School, Auck-
land
Heath, H. W., Alfred Street, Auck-
land
Herbert, T., Shortland Street, Auck-
land
Hesketh, H. E., Wyndham Street,
Auckland
Hodgson, J., Victoria Street East,
Auckland
Holderness, D., Harbour Board
Offices, Auckland
McGowan, Hon. J., Thames
McMillan, C. C, care of Auckland
Institute, Auckland*
Mahoney, T., Swanson Street, Auck-
land
Mair, Captain G., Eotorua
Mair, S. A. E., Hunterville, Wel-
lington
Mair, Major W. G., Eotorua
Major, C. T., King's College, Eemuera
Makgill, Dr. E. H., Public Health
Office, Auckland
Martin, J., Victoria Arcade, Auck-
land
Marchesini, Dr. G., Princes Street,
Auckland
Metcalfe, H. H., Palmerston Build-
ings, Auckland
Miller, E. V., Chelsea, Auckland
Milnes, H. A. E., Training College,
Wellesley Street, Auckland
Boll of Members.
117
Milroy, S., Kauri Timber Company,
Auckland
Milsom, Dr., Cargen, Eden Cres-
cent, Auckland
Mitchelson, Hon. E., Eemuera
Moore, J. E., Esplanade Road,
Mount Eden
Morgan, A. H. V., School of Mines,
Waihi
Morgan, H. H., University College,
Auckland
Morgan, E. J., Shoal Bay Road,
Devonport
Morton, H. B., One - tree Hill,
Epsom
Moss, E. G. B., Swanson Street,
Auckland
Mulgan, E. K., Education Offices,
Auckland
Myers, A. M., M.P., Campbell-
Ehrenfried Company, Auckland
Myers, Leo, Campbell-Ehrenfried
Company, Auckland
Napier, W. J., Victoria Arcade,
Auckland
Nathan, N. A., L. D. Nathan and
Co., Shortland Street, Auckland*
Nathan, S. J., 9 Symonds Street,
Auckland
Newton, G. M., 102 Victoria Arcade,
Auckland
Nicholson, 0., Royal Insurance
Buildings, Queen Street, Auck-
land
Oliphant, P., 24 Symonds Street,
Auckland
Pabst, Dr., Parnell
Partridge, H. E., Queen Street,
Auckland
Patterson, G. W. S., Gore Street,
Auckland
Peacock, T., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Petrie, D., Rosmead, Epsom
Philson, W. W., Colonial Sugar
Company, Auckland
Player, Dr. C. E., Birkenhead,
Auckland
Pond, J. A., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Powell, F. E., Harbour Board
Offices, Auckland
Price, E. A., Buchanan and Co.,
Albert Street, Auckland
Pycroft, A. T., Railway Offices,
Auckland
Rangihiroa, Dr. Te, M.P., Auckland
Reid, J., 43 Fort Street, Auckland
Renshaw, F., Sharland and Co.,
Lome Street, Auckland
Rhodes, C, Waihi Gold-mining Com-
pany, Shortland Street, Auckland
Roberton, A. B., Custom Street
West, Auckland
Roberton, Dr. E., Symonds Street,
Auckland
Roche, H., Horahora, near Cam-
bridge, Waikato
Rolfe, W., Sharland and Co., Lome
Street, Auckland
Rossiter, Dr. E. B., Mount Albert
Satchell, W., Church Street, North-
cote
Savage, Dr. T. C, Princes Street,
Auckland
Scott, Rev. D. D., The Manse,
Onehunga
Seegner, C, Bank of New Zealand
Buildings, Queen Street, Auck-
land
Segar, Professor H. W., University
College, Auckland
Shakespear, Mrs. R. H., Whanga-
paraoa
Shaw, H., Vermont Street, Pon-
sonby
Simson, T., Mount St. John Avenue,
Epsom
Sinclair, A., Symonds Street, Auck-
land
Smeeton, H. M., Binswood, View
Road, Mount Eden
Smith, H. G. Seth, Victoria Avenue,
Remuera
Smith, S. Percy, New Plymouth
Smith, W. H., Smith and Caughey,
Queen Street, Auckland
Somerville, J. M., Chelsea, Auck-
land
Spencer, W. C. C, Grafton Road,
Auckland
Stewart, J., C.E.,Tuaorangi, Owen's
Road, Epsom
Stewart, J. W., Wyndham Street,
Auckland
Stewart, R. Leslie, Brown and
Stewart, Swanson Street, Auck-
land
lib
Appendix.
Stewart, W. F., Auckland Gas Com-
pany, Wyndham Street, Auck-
land
Streeter, S. C, Mount Eden
Thomas, Professor A. P. W., Moun-
tain Road, Epsom
Tibbs, J. W., Grammar School,
Auckland
Tinne, H., Union Club, Trafalgar
Square, London
Trotter, Rev. W., Manukau Road,
Epsom
Upton, J. H., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Urquhart, A. T., Karaka, Drury
Vaile, E. E., Broadlands, Waiotapu
Vaile, H. E., Queen Street, Auck-
land
Walker, Rev. F. W., Ellerslie
Walker, S., Devonport
Walklate, J. J., Electric Tram
Company, Auckland
Wallace, T. F., Waihi Gold-mining
Company, Shortland Street, Auck-
land
Walsh, Archdeacon P., Cambridge
Ward, Percy, Mount Roskill Road,
Auckland
Ware, W., Portland Road, Remuera
Waterworth, A., New Zealand
Photograph Goods Company,
Shortland Street, Auckland
Webbe, W. H., Berlin Piano Com-
pany, Queen Street, Auckland
Webster, J., Cheltenham Avenue,
Devonport
Webster, W. H., care of Auckland
Institute, Auckland
Weetman, Svdnev, Westbourne
Road, Remuera
Wells, T. U., Westbourne Road,
Remuera
| Whitley, W. S., Albert Street,
Auckland
Williams, Right Rev. W. L., Napier
Wilson, Albert, St. Stephen's School,
Parnell
Wilson, A. P., Victoria Arcade,
Auckland
Wilson, J., Shortland Street, Auck-
land
Wilson, R. M., Russell Road,
Remuera
Wilson, W. R., Herald Offices,
Queen Street, Auckland
Wiseman, J. W., Albert Street,
Auckland
Withy, E., Rotorua
Woodward, W. E., Union Bank of
Australia, Queen Street, Auckland
Wyllie, A., Municipal Buildings,
Auckland
Yates, E., Queen Street, Auckland
Young, J. L., Henderson and Mac-
farlaue, Custom Street, Auck-
land
Young, Captain C. A., General Post
Office, Auckland
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
F Life
Acland, Dr., Salisbury Street,
Christchurch
Acland, H. D., Park Terrace,
Christchurch
Adams, T. W., Green dale
Adamson, Rev. H., Papanui
Ager, F. T., Woodham Road, Lin-
wood
Aldridge, W. G., M.A., Technical
College, Christchurch
Allison, H., care of Harman and
Stevens, Christchurch
Andersen, Johannes C, Govern-
ment Buildings, Christchurch
members.) . .
Anderson, Dr. C. Morton, Worces-
ter Street, Christchurch
Aschman, C. T., Training College,
Christchurch
Baker, T. N., Cashel Street, Christ-
church
Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc, Geological
Survey
Beaveu, A. W., care of Andrews and
Beaven, South Belt, Christchurch
Bell, N. M., M.A., Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, England
Bevan-Brown, C. E., M.A., Boys'
High School, Christchurch
Boll of Members.
119
Bishop, F. C. B., Armagh Street,
Christchurch
Bishop, G. W., New Brighton'
Bishop, R. C, Gas Office, Christ-
church
Blackburne, S. S., Manchester
Street, Christchurch
Blunt, Professor T. G. R., M.A.,
Canterbury College
Boag, T. D., Bryndwyr
Booth, G. T., Carlyle Street,
Sydenham
Borrie, Dr. F. J., Latimer Square,
Christchurch
Bowen, Sir Charles C, F.R.G.S.,
Middleton
Brock, W., M.A., Education Office,
Christchurch
Brooker, F. J., Post-office, Christ-
church
Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A.,
LL.D., Holmbank, Fendalton*
Bruce, H. A., Opawa
Buddo, The Hon. D., M.P., Rangi-
ora
Bullen, Miss Gertrude, Clyde Road,
Christchurch
Burnett, T. D., Cave, South Can-
terbury
Caughley, J., M.A., West Christ-
church D.H. School
Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc, M.A.,
M.B.,F.L.S., Canterbury College-
Cockayne, L., Ph.D., F.L.S., Canal
Reserve, Linwood
Cocks, Rev. P. J., B.A., Sydenham
Cocks, Miss, Colombo Road South,
Christchurch
Coles, W. R., Wilson's Road,
Christchurch
Colee, W. C, M.A., Rugby Street,
St. Albans
Corkill, F. M., Canterbury College
Cross, Miss B. D., M.A., Canter-
bury College
Cuthbert, E., M.Inst. C.E., M.Inst.
San.E., Drainage Board Office,
Christchurch
Dash, Charles, Spreydon
Deans, J., Kirkstyles, Malvern
Denham, H. G., Ph.D., D.Sc,
Canterbury College
Deuniston, Mr. Justice, Durham
Street, Christchurch
Dobson, A. Dudley, M.Inst.C.E.,
City Council Office, Christchurch
Dorrien Smith, Captain A., D.S.O.,
Tresco Abbey, Scilly, England
Drummond, James, F.L.S., Lyttcl-
ton Times, Christchurch
English, R., F.C.S., M.I.M.E., Gas
Office, Christchurch
Enys, J. D., Penrhyn, Cornwall,
England
Evans, Professor W. P., M.A.,
Ph.D., Canterbury College
Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc,
A. M.Inst.C.E., Canterbury College
Farrow, F. D., M.A., care of A. P.
Farrow, Ensor's Road, Opawa
Finch, Richard, M.R.C.V.S., De-
partment of Agriculture, Christ-
church
Finlayson, Miss, M.A., West Christ*
church School
Fletcher, T., District High School,
Christchurch
Florance, D. C. H., M.A., M.Sc,
Canterbury College
Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc, Christ's
College
Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S., Hereford
Street, Christchurch
Foster, T. S., M.A., Cashel Street,
Christchurch
Foweraker, C, High School, Waimate
Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M.A.,
M.Sc, Canterbury College
Garton, W. W., Elmwood School,
Christchurch
Gibson, Dr. F. Goulburn, Papanui
Road
Godby, M. H., Hereford Street,
Christchurch
Goss, W., Durham Street, Christ-
church
Gray, G., F.C.S., Lincoln College,
Lincoln
Gray, Melville, Tnnaru
Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach
Grimes, Rt. Rev. Bishop, D.D.,
Christchurch
Gudex, M. C, M.A., Boys' High
School, Christchurch
Guthrie, Dr. J., Lyttelton
Hall, J. D., Middleton
Hall, Miss, Gloucester Street West,
Christchurch
120
Appendix
Hallenstein, P. L., Bealey Avenue,
Christchurch
Hansford, G. D., Winchester Street,
Linwood
Haszard, H. D. M., F.E.G.S.,
Lands Department, Christchurch
Haynes, E. J., Canterbury Museum
Herring, E., Papanui
Hight, Professor J., M.A., Litt.D.,
Canterbury College
Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc, Lin-
coln College, Lincoln
Hill, Mrs. Carey, Papanui Eoad,
Christchurch
Hitchings, F., Durham Street,
Sydenham
Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Science and
Art Museum, Plymouth
Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.E.A.S.,
Christ's College
Hogg, H. E., M.A., F.Z.S., 2 Vicar-
age Gate, London W.
Howell, J. H., B.Sc, Technical
College, Christchurch
Hughes, T., B.A., Geraldine
Humphreys, G., Fendalton
Hutton, Mrs., Gloucester Street,
Christchurch
Ingram, John, Mansfield Avenue,
Christchurch
Irving, Dr. W., Armagh Street,
Christchurch
Izard, Miss, Four Peaks, Geraldine
Jackson, T. H., B.A., Boys' High
School, Christchurch
Jameson, J. O., care of Thomas Cook
and Son, Hereford Street, Christ-
church
Jamieson, J., Hereford Street,
Christchurch
Jennings, L. S., M.A., Canterbury
College
Kaye, A., Webb Street, St. Albans
Kidson, E. E., M.Sc, Department
of Terrestrial Magnetism, Wash-
ington, U.S.A.*
King, E., High Street, Christchurch
Kirkpatrick, W. D., Eedcliffs, Sumner
Kitchingman, Miss, Fitzgerald
Avenue, Christchurch
Laing, E. M., M.A., B.Sc, Boys'
High School, Christchurch
Lester, Dr. G., Cranmer Square,
Christchurch
Louisson, Hon. C, M.L.C., Glouces-
ter Street, Christchurch
Macbeth, N. L., Canterbury Frozen
Meat Company, Christchurch
Marshall, Mrs., New Brighton
Mayne, J. B., B.A., Sydenham
McBride, T. J., Papanui Eoad
j McCallum, P., M.A., M.Sc, Uni-
versity, Edinburgh
Macleod, D. B., M.A., Canterbury
t College
Meares, H. 0. D., Fendalton
\t Meredith-Kaye, E. K., Papanui
■ Mill, Dr. Thomas, Geraldine
Mollett, T. A. (address unknown)*
Moorhouse, Dr. B. M., Oxford
Terrace, Christchurch
Moreland, Eev. C. H., M.A.,
Christ's College
J Murray- Aynsley, H. P., Clyde Eoad,
Eiccarton
! Nairn, E., Lincoln Eoad, Spreydon
j Newton, I. E., M.A., Technical
College, Christchurch
North, W. B., Beautiful Valley,
Geraldine
Oliver, F. S., care of A. E. Craddock,
Manchester Street, Christchurch
Oliver, W. E. B., H.M. Customs,
Auckland
Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A., M.Sc,
Hokitika
Opie, C. H. A. T., New Brighton
Page, S., B.Sc, Canterbury Col-
lege
Pairman, Dr., Governor's Bay
Pannett, J. A., Cashmere Hills
Pinfold, Eev. J. T., Springston
Parker, W. L., Canterbury College
Poulson, John, Styx
Powell, P. H., M.Sc, Canterbury
College
Purnell, C
Eeece, W.
church
Eelph, E. W., Eolleston Avenue,
Christchurch
Ehodes, A. E. G., B.A., Fendalton
Ehodes, Colonel E. Heaton, M.P.,
Tai Tapu
Eichardson, Miss Margaret, Cash-
mere Hills, Christchurch
Eobinson, W. F., F.E.G.S., Canter-
bury College
W., Ashburton
Colombo Street, Christ-
Boll of Members.
121
Ross, R. G., Telegraph - office,
Christchurch
Rowe, T. W., M.A., LL.B., Here-
ford Street, Christchurch
Sanders, Miss, Worcester Street,
Christchurch
Scott, J. L., Manchester Street,
Christchurch
Seager, J. H., Worcester Street,
Christchurch
Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.I.B.A.,
Cathedral Square, Christchurch
Seth-Smith, B., Stratford Street,
Fendalton
Sheard, Miss F., M.A., B.Sc, Girls'
High School, Christchurch
Shrimpton, E. A., A.M.I.E.E.,
Telegraph Engineer, Auckland
Simmers, G. A., M.A., High School,
Timaru
Sims, A., M.A., care of Sims,
Cooper, and Co, Hereford Street,
Christchurch
Skey, H. F., B.Sc, Magnetic Ob-
servatory, Christchurch
Sloman, C. J., Crown Brewery,
Christchurch
Snow, Colonel, Papanui Road,
Christchurch
Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.,
Canterbury College, Christchurch
Spiller, J., Oxford Terrace, Christ-
church
Staveley, N. C, A.M.I.C.E., Drain-
age Office, Christchurch
Stead, E. F., Papanui Road
Stevenson, Dr. J., Fendalton
Stone, T., Lyttelton Times Office
Suter, Henry, Hereford Street, Lin-
wood
Symes, Dr. W. H., Worcester
Street, Christchurch*
Symes, Langford P., Belfast
Talbot, Dr. A. G., M.A., Oxford
Terrace, Christchurch
Taylor, A., M.A., M.R.C.V.S., Lin-
coln College
Taylor, G. J., Madras Street, St.
Albans
Thomas, Dr. W., Colombo Street,
Christchurch*
Tripp, C. H., M.A., Timaru*
Vickerman, H., Public Works De-
partment, Christchurch
Waite, Edgar R., F.L.S., The
Museum, Christchurch
Waller, F. D., B.A., West Christ-
church District High School
Waymouth, Mrs., Bank of New
Zealand, 1 Queen Victoria Street,
London
Weston, G. T., B.A., LL.B., Cashel
Street, Christchurch
Whitaker, C. Godfrey, care of Booth,
Macdonald, and Co., Christ-
church
Whitehead, G., B.A., Boys' High
School, Christchurch
Wigram, Hon. F., M.L.C., Park
Terrace, Christchurch
Wilding, Frank S., Hereford Street,
Christchurch
Wilkins, C, The School, Addington,
Christchurch
Williams, C. J., M.Inst.C.E., Cran-
mer Square
Wilson, Miss, Lyndhurst, Bealey
Avenue
Wright, A. M., F.C.S., Box 617,
Post-office, Christchurch
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]
Ackland, E. W., Box 261
Alexander. Dr. E., Ashburn Hall
Allan, Dr. W., Mosgiel
Allen, James, M.P., Clyde Street
Allen, Dr. S. C, 220 High Street
Anscombe, E., 134 Princes Street
Balk, O., Driver Street, Maori Hill
Barnett, Dr. L. E., Stafford Street
Barr, Peter, Ann Street
Batchelor, Dr. F. C, 368 George
Street
Bathgate, Alexander, Neidpath
Road, Mornington*
Beal, L. O., 79 Princes Street
Beaumont, Sydney, care of Salmond
and Vanes
122
Appendix.
Bell, A. Dillon, Shag Valley*
Benham, Professor W. B., M.A.,
D.Sc, F.B.S., Museum
Bethune, A. W., Inspector of Ma-
chinery
Black, Alexander, 82 Clyde Street"
Black, Professor J. G., D.Sc, Uni-
versity
Blair, John, 46 Eglinton Boad,
Mornington
Booth, D. E., 480 George Street
Boys-Smith, Professor, University
Brady, Bev. Brother, Pitt Street
Braithwaite, Joseph, 36 Princes
Street
Brasch, H., 55 London Street
Bremner, James, 14 Princes Street
Brent, D., M.A., Anderson's Bay*
Brent, H. C, 74 Queen's Drive,
Musselburgh
Brickell, B. W., 136 Eglinton Boad,
Mornington
Brown, F. B., 7 Bridgeman Street,
St. Kilda
Brown, W., 87 Clyde Street
Browne, Bobert, Technical School,
Hawera
Buchanan, N. L., Paturau, Col-
lingwood, Nelson"''-
Buckland, Mrs., Waikouaiti
Buddie, Boger, Selwyn College
Burnside, J. A., 3 Vogel Street
Burt, Boss, care of A. and T. Burt
(Limited)
Butterworth, Charles, Town Belt,
Boslyn
Cameron, Dr. P. D., 145 Leith
Street
Chamberlain, C. W., 6 Begent Boad
Champtaloup, Dr. S. T., University
Chapman, C. B., 135 Town Belt,
Boslyn
Chapman, Mr. Justice, Supreme
Court, Christchurch
Chisholm, Bobert, Boss Street,
Boslyn
Chisholm, W. E., Telegraph-office
Church, Dr. B., High Street
Clarke, C. E., Ogg's Corner, South
Dunedin
Clarke, E. S., Woodhaugh
Collier, E. E., 30 Crawford Street
Colquhoun, Dr. D., High Street
Couston, B. B., Jetty Street
Crawford, W. J., 179 Walker Street
Creagh, E. C, P.O. Box 383
Davidson, B. E., Hawthorn Boad,
Mornington
Davidson, W. B., Assistant Engi-
neer, New Zealand Bailways
Davies, G. W., 9 Gladstone Street,
Belleknowes
Davies, O. V., 109 Princes Street
Davis, A., Test Boom, Cumberland
Street
De Beer, I. S., London Street
Don, J. B., M.A., D.Sc, 20 Main
South Boad
Dowling, F. L , Standard Insurance
Company
Duke, C, care of Salmond and
Vanes, Water Street
Duncan, P., " Tolcarne," Maori
Hill
Dutton, Bev. D., F.G.S., F.B.A.S.,
Caversham
Edgar, G. C, Market Street
Edge, Kelburne, P.O. Box 109
Elliot, Michael, 16 Albert Street
Fairclough, Bev. P. W., F.B.A.S.,
York Place
Farquharson, B. A., M.Sc, 56 Elgin
Boad, Mornington
Fels, W., 48 London Street*
Fenwick, Cuthbert, Stock Exchange
Fenwick, G., Otago Daily Times
Fergus, Hon. T., Boyal Terrace
Ferguson, G., Telegraph-office
Ferguson, Dr. H. L., Park Street
Findlay, Peter, 126 Albany Street
Fisher, T. B., Standard Insurance
Company
Fitchett, Dr. F. W. B., Pitt Street
Fitzgerald, J. A., School, Maori Hill
Forsyth, A. C, 203 Maitland Street
Frye, Charles, Gasworks, Caver-
sham
Fulton, H. V., A. and P. Society,
Crawford Street
Fulton, Joseph, 305 Castle Street
Fulton, Dr. B. V., Pitt Street
Fulton, S. W., The Exchange,
Collins Street, Melbourne*
Furkert, F. W., Public Works Office
Gall, N. W., care of John Chambers
and Sons
Garrow, Professor J. M. E., LL.B.,
Victoria College, Wellington*
Roll of Members.
123
Gibson, G. W., Silverton, Ander-
son's Bay
Gilkison, R., 14 Main Road, North-
east Valley
Gillanders, W., Test Room, Cum-
berland Street
Gillies, T. M., Otago Foundry
Glasgow, W. T., Albert Street,
Roslvn
Gough,"G. W., Town Hall
Gould, H. J., care of L. O. Beal,
Princes Street
Goyen, P., 136 High Street, Roslyn
Graham, T. S., 177 Princes Street
Grave, W. G., M.A., Oamaru
Green, B. R., 102 Princes Street
Guthrie, H. J., 426 Moray Place E.
Hall, Dr. A. J., Stuart Street
Hamilton, A., F.L.S., Dominion
Museum, Wellington*
Hamilton, T. B., M.A., B.Sc, Uni-
versity
Hancock, Miss A. D., Forbury Road,
St. Clair
Hanlon, A. C, Pitt Street
Hay, C. W., 212 High Street
Henderson, M. C, Electrical Engi-
neer's Office, Market Street
Henton, J. W., 140 York Place
Hercus, G. R., 20 Albert Street
Hobart, G. T. V., 152 Dundas Street
Hodgkinson, Miss E., 25 Bowmont
Street, Invercargill
Hooper, B. B., A.M. P. Buildings
Hosking, J. H., K.C., Salisbury
Street
Howes, Miss Edith, School, Gore:::
Howes, G. W., F.E.S., F.L.S., 812
George Street
Howrth, S. H., Grove Street,
Musselburgh
Hungerford, J. T., Gasworks
Jeffrey, J., School, Anderson's Bay
Joachim, G., Randall Street, Morn-
ington*
Johnstone, J. A., Driver Street,
Maori Hill
Jones, Nelson, 7 Ferguson Street,
Musselburgh
Jones, R. C, 596 George Street
Kempthorne, T. W., Albert Street
King, Dr. F. Truby, Seacliff
Laing, John, Queen Street
Lamb, Tompson, 5 Liverpool Street
Lambie, A., Telegraph-office
Lawson, J. N., 58 St. David Street
Lee, G. A., Otago Harbour Board
Lee, Robert, Engineer's Office, N.Z.R.
Livingston, W., 56 Royal Terrace
Loudon, John, 43 Crawford Street
Lough, F. J., Dowling Street
Lusk, T. H., Black's Road, Opoho
Lythgoe, Jos., Test Room, Cumber-
land Street
Macdougall, W. P., jun., 28 Cargill
Street
Mackie, A., Test Room, Cumber-
land Street
Malcolm, Professor J., M.D., Uni-
versity
Marchant, Miss M. E. A., M.A.,
Girls' High School
Marriott, C. H., 38 Normanby
Street, Musselburgh
Marshall, Angus, B.A., Technical
School
Marshall, J. C, Onslow House,
St. Kilda
Marshall, Professor P., M.A., D.Sc,
F.G.S., University
Mason, J. B., Otago Harbour Board
Massey, Horatio, Invercargill
McCurdie, W. D. R., Town Hall
McDonald, K. A., care of A. and T.
Burt (Limited)
McEvoy, W. L., Grove Street,
Musselburgh
McGeorge, J. C, Eglinton Road,
Mornington
McKellar, Dr. T. G., Pitt Street
McKenzie, D., 268 Princes Street
McKerrow, James, F.R.A.S., Wel-
lington
McKnight, Miss S., M.A., M.Sc,
Girls' High School
McRae, H., 23 City Road, Roslyn
Melland, E., Arthog Road, Hale,
Cheshire, England*
Miller, David, 25 City Road, Roslyn
Milnes, J. W., 39 Lees Street*
Mitchell, W. J., U.S.S. Company,
Port Chalmers
Moore, Dr. S., 5 London Street
Morrell, W. J., M.A., Boys' High
School
Morris, C. B., Waitaki Pharmacy,
Oamaru
Morris, J. Fairly, Port Chalmers
124
Appendix.
Munro, Watson, P.O. Box 519
Murray, A. L., 95 Upper Grosvenor
Street, Kensington
Neil, Alexander, Gasworks
Nevill, Et. Eev. S. T. , D. D. , Bishops-
grove
Newlands, Dr.
Street
Nichol, James, Riverview, Gore
Oakden, F., Milburn Lime and
Cement Company
Ogston, Dr. F., 236 High Street
Orchiston, G. J., Test Room, Cum-
berland Street
Overton, T. R., Test Room, Cumber-
land Street
Park, Professor J., M.A., F.G.S.,
University
Parker, R. V., Survey Office
Parr, C, 6 Albany Street
Parr, E. J., M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High
School
Paterson, J. G., M.A.. M.Sc, Wai-
kato High School, Hamilton
Payne, F. W., 177 Princes Street
Petrie, D., M.A., Ph.D., Education
Office, Auckland*
Pfeifer, C. E., Survey Office
Pickerill, Professor " H. P., M.B.,
B.D.S., University
Poppelwell, D. L., Gore
Preston, T. A. C, care of Turnbull
and Jones
Price, R., Public Trust Office
Price, W. H., 55 Stuart Street*
Rawson, G. A., Kew, Caversham
Reid, Donald, jun., 116 Rattray
Street
Richards, Professor D. J., M.A.,
University
Richardson, C. R. D., B.A., Educa-
tion Office
Riley, Dr. F. R., Pitt Street
Ritchie, J. M., 19 Pitt Street
Ritchie, Dr. Russell, 400 George
Street
Roberts, E. F., 128 High Street,
Roslvn
Roberts, John, C.M.G., JLittle-
bourne
Roberts, Dr. W. S., 403 George
Street
Ross, T. C, care of Ross and Glen-
dining (Limited)
Russell, G. Gray, care of Trustees,
Executors, and Agency Company
Rutherford, R. W., Playfair Street,
Caversham
Sandle, Captain S. G., Onslow
House, St. Kilda
W., 12 London [ Sargood, Percy, " Marinoto," New-
ington
Scott, J. H., Converter Station,
Cumberland Street
Scott, Professor J. H., M.D., Uni-
versity
Scoullar, W. J., care of W. J. Craw-
ford, Walker Street
Shacklock, J. B., Bayfield, Ander-
son's Bay
Shand, Professor J., M.A., LL.D.,
University
Shennan, Watson, 367 High Street
Shepherd, F. R., P.O. Box 361
Sherriff, D., 42 Heriot Row
Shortt, F. M., care of John
Chambers and Sons
Sidey, John, Caversham
Sim, Mr. Justice, Musselburgh.
Simpson, F. A., care of John
Chambers and Sons
Simpson, George, 98 Russell Street
Simpson, George, jun., 9 Gamma
Street, Roslyn
Sise, G. L., 3 Queen Street
Skelsey, F. W., Milburn Lime and
Cement Company
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Skinner, H. D., 67 Heriot Row
Smith, C. S., Star Office
Smith, J. A., Town Belt, Roslyn
Smith, J. C, 196 Tay Street, Inver-
cargill
Somerville, W. G., 18 Leven Street,
Roslyn
Spencer, Mrs. Montgomery. Geral-
dine
Stark, E. E., Vauxhall, Anderson's
Bay
Stark, J., care of Ross and Glen-
dining
Stark, James, care of Kempthorne,
Prosser, and Co.
Stark, R. E., Vauxhall, Anderson's
Bay
Statham, F. H.( A.O.S.M., 26 Dow-
ling Street
Stewart, W. D., LL.B., 62 Heriot Row
Boll of Members.
125
Stout, Sir Eobert, K.C.M.G.; Wei- j
lington
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Symes, H., Town Clerk, Mornington
Symington, S., P.O. Box 88, Inver-
cargill
Tannock, D., Botanical Gardens
Theomin, D., 42 Royal Terrace
Thomlinson, C. H. *N., Coney Hill
Road, St. Clair
Thompson, G. E., M.A., University
Thompson, R. S., Otago Harbour
Board
Thomson, G. M., F.L.S., M.P., New-
ington
Thomson, J. C, Burwood Avenue,
Maori Hill
Thomson, R. G., Otago Daily Times
Thomson, T., Mines Department,
Princes Street
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Walden, E. W., 12 Dowling Street
Walker, A., Government Inspector
of Machinery
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neer's Office
Waters, Professor D. B., A.O.S.M.,
University
White, Professor David R., M.A.,
83 St. David Street
White, H. E., P.O. Box 132, Wel-
lington
Whitson, T. W., 584 George Street
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Chambers, J., Mokopeka
Chambers, W. K., Repongiere, Gis-
borne
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Clark, Gilbert, Napier
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Craig, J. W., Napier
Darton, G., Gisborne
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Dinwiddie, W., Napier
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Duncan, Russell, Napier
Edgar, Dr. J. J., Napier
Fitzgerald, J., Napier
Fossey, W., Napier
Grant, M. R., Napier
Guthrie- Smith, H., Tutira
Hamilton, A., F.L.S., Wellingtons-
Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon
Henley, Dr. E. A. W., Napier
Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S., Napier
Hill, Howard, Napier
Hislop, J., Napier"
Holdsworth, J., Havelock North
Hutchinson, F., jun., Rissington
Humphreys, E. J., Tokomaru Bay
Hyde, Thomas, Napier
Kerr, W., M.A., Napier
Large, J. S., Napier
Large, Miss, Napier
Leahy, Dr. J. P., Napier
Locking, Dr. B., Napier
Loten, E. G., Napier
Lowry, T. H., Okawa
Luff, A., Wellington
Mayne, Rev. Canon, Napier
McLean, R. D. D., Napier
126
Appendix.
Metcalfe, W. F., Kiritaki, Te Ara-
roa
Moore, Dr. T. C, Napier
Niven, J., M.A., M.Sc., Napier
Oates, W., J. P., Tokomaru Bay
Ormond, Hon. J. D., M.L.C.,
Napier
O'Byan, W., Waipiro
Paterson, R. L., Napier
Eowley, F., B.A., Gisborne
Sinclair, G. K., Clive
Sherwood, T. E., Makarika, Wai-
piro Bay •
Sheath, J. H., Napier
Smart, D. L., Napier
Smith, J. H., Olrig*
Snodgrass, J., Napier
Spencer, Miss, M.A., Rissington
Tanner, T., Havelock North
Thompson, J. P., Napier
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Townley, J., Gisborne
Townson, W., Gisborne
Turvey, W. J. W., Napier
White, T., Wimbledon
Williams, G. T., Mokoiwi, Tuparoa,
East Coast
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Guy, A.
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Hodder, T. R.
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Keiller, W. A.
Kerslake, T. T.
Low, D. W.
Macdonald, A.
McNab, R.
Manson, Thomas
Martin, Dr. A. A., M.A.
Martin, D.
Mitchell, J.
Monckton, C. A. W.
Moodie, T. A.
Mounsey, J.
Mowleni, H.
Nash, N. H.
Nathan, F. J.
O'Donnell, W. J., C.E.
Park, W.
Peach, Dr.
Boll of Members.
127
Powles, Captain
Putnam, Dr. P. T.
Bait, D. H., M.E.C.V.S.
Riddiford, E.
Roth, C. A
Russell, A. E.
Scott, G. J.
Seifert, L.
Sinclair, D., C.E.
Smith, W. W., F.E.S.
Stevens, J.
Stowe, Dr. W. R., M.R.C S.
Strang, W.
Sutherland, A.
Tatton, Dr.
Vernon, J. E., M.A.
Waldegrave, C. E.
Warden, C. H.
Watson, F. E.
Welch, W„ F.R.G.S.
Wilson, Dr. G., M.B.
Wilson, K., M.A.
Wollerman, H.
Young, H. L.
3 — Proceedings, pt. iii.
ll>
Appendix .
LIST OF INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH
THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE ARE PRESENTED BY THE
GOVERNORS OP THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, 30.
Neiv Zealand.
Cabinet, The Members of, Wellington.
Executive Library, Wellington.
Free Public Library, Auckland.
Christchurch.
„ Dunedin.
Wellington.
Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies).
Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland.
Auckland Museum, Auckland.
Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland.
Biological Laboratory, University of Otago, Dunedin.
Biological Laboratory, Victoria College, Wellington.
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.
Dunedin Athenaeum.
General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies).
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier.
Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North.
Nelson College.
Nelson Institute, Nelson.
New Zealand Geological Survey.
New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.
New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Otago Institute, Dunedin.
Otago Museum, Dunedin.
Otago School of Mines, Dunedin.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Polynesian Society, New Plymouth.
Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin.
JReefton School of Mines.
Thames School of Mines.
University College, Auckland.
University College, Christchurch.
University of Otago, Dunedin.
Victoria College, Wellington.
Wanganui Museum.
'Wellington Philosophical Society.
Westland Institute, Hokitika.
List of Free Copies. 129
Great Britain.
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, London.
British Museum Library, London.
„ Natural History Department, South Kensington,
London S.W.
Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University.
Colonial Office, London.
Clifton College, Bristol, England.
Entomological Society, London.
Geological Magazine, London.
Geological Society, Edinburgh.
„ London.
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
High Commissioner for New Zealand, London.
Imperial Institute, London.
Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, London.
Leeds Geological /Association, Meanwood, Leeds.
Linnaean Society, London.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool.
Liverpool Biological Society.
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth.
Natural History Society, Glasgow.
Marlborough College, England.
Nature, The Editor of, London.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich.
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne .
Patent Office Library, London.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Philosophical Society of Leeds, England.
Boyal Asiatic Society, London.
Boyal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Boyal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.
Koyal Colonial Institute, London.
Boyal Geographical Society, London.
Boyal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Boyal Physical Society, Edinburgh.
Boyal Society, Dublin.
„ Edinburgh.
„ London.
Boyal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, London.
Boyal Statistical Society, London.
School Library Committee, Eton, England.
„ Bugby, England.
University Library, Cambridge, England.
„ Edinburgh.
„ Oxford, England.
Victoria College, Manchester.
Victoria Institute, London.
William Wesley and Son, London (Agents).
Zoological Society, London.
130 Appendix.
British North America.
Canadian Institute, Toronto.
Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
Hamilton Scientific Association, Hamilton, Canada.
Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.
Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, Canada Bast.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's.
Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax.
Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society, Ottawa.
South Africa.
Free Public Library, Cape Town.
South African Philosophical Society, Cape Town.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town.
South African Museum, Cape Town.
Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa.
India.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Colombo Museum, Ceylon.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Raffles Museum, Singapore.
Queensland.
Geological Society of Australasia, Queensland Branch, Brisbane.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.
Library, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.
Neiv South Wales.
Agricultural Department, Sydney.
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney.
Australian Museum Library, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.
Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney.
Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Lmnaean Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Public Library, Sydney.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, N.S.W. Branch, Sydney.
Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
University Library, Sydney.
Victoria.
Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne.
Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne.
Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne.
Gordon Technical College, Geelong.
Legislative Library, Melbourne.
Public Library, Melbourne.
Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.
University Library, Melbourne.
Victorian Institute of Surveyors.
List of Free Copies. 131
Tasmania.
Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.
Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.
South Australia.
Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide.
University Library, Adelaide.
Russia.
Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo, Finnish Scientific Society, Helsing-
fors.
Imper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo - Ispytatelei, Imperial
Moscow Society of Naturalists.
Kiefskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei, Kief Society of Natural-
ists.
Norway.
Bergens Museum, Bergen.
University of Christiania.
Srveden.
Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm.
Royal Academy of Science. Stockholm.
Denmark.
Natural History Society of Copenhagen.
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literatwe of Copenhagen.
Germany.
Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin.
Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.
Kbnigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Konigsberg, E.
Prussia.
Konighches Zoologisches und Anthropologisch - Ethnographisches
Museum, Dresden.
Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn.
Naturhistorisches Museum, Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder.
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stadtisches Museum fur Vblkerkunde),
Cologne.
Redaktion des Biologischen Central-Blatts, Erlangen.
Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt-am-Main.
Verein fur Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirttemburg, Stuttgart.
Austria.
K.K. Central- Anstalt fur Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna.
K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna.
132 Appendix.
Belgium and the Netherlands.
Musee Teyler, Haarlem.
Academie Koyal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux- Arts de
Belgique, Brussels.
La Societe Koyale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Sivitzerland .
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelies), Bern.
France.
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle de Bordeaux.
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Entoruologique de France, Paris.
Societe de Geographie, Paris.
Societe Zoologique de France, Paris.
Italy.
Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Eome.
Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia del K. Instituto di Studi Superiori,
Florence.
Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della B. Universita,
Turin.
Orto e Museo Botanico (B. Instituto di Studi Superiori), Florence.
R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti. Modena.
R. Accademia dei Lincei, Borne.
Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples.
Societa Africana d'ltalia, Naples.
Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Pisa.
United States of America.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York.
Davenport, Iowa.
„ Library, Philadelphia.
„ San Francisco.
American Geographical Society, New York.
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Boston Society of Natural History.
Connecticut Academy, New Haven.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
Natural History Museum, Central Park, New York.
New York Academy of Sciences.
List of Free Copies. 133
Philippine Museum, Manila.
Rochester Academy of Sciences.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Stanford University, California.
Tufts College, Massachusetts.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
University of Montana, Missoula.
Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia.
Washington Academy of Sciences.
Brazil.
Museo Paulista, Sao Paulo.
Escola de Minas, Rio de Janeiro.
Argentine Republic.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres.
Uruguay.
Museo Nacional, Monte Video.
Japan.
College of Literature, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo^
College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.
Hawaii.
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
National Library, Honolulu.
Java.
Society of Natural Science, Batavia.
INDE
AUTHORS OF PAPERS.
AdKIN, G. L. PAGE
The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaeiation in the Tararua Ranges,
North Island, New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . 308
Description of a Multiple Rainbow. Abstract in Proceedings, Part III . . 85
Archey, G. — Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand. Proceedings,
Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Aston, J3. C. —
The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae . . . . . . . . . . 208
The Chemistry of Bush Sickness . . . . . . . . . . 288
Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation. Proceed-
ings, Part I .. .. .. .. .. .. ..19
Bartrtjm, J. A. — Some Rocks of Mount Cargill, Dunedin . . . . . . 163
Benham, W. B. — Report on Sundry Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands . . 135
Broun, Major T. — Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Coleoptera . . 379
Brown, J. Macmillan. — Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence
of their Language . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Burbidge, P. W. (with Laby, T. H.). — The Nature of Gamma Kays. Pro-
ceedings, Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Cheeseman, T. F. —
A New Genus and some New Species of Plants . . . . . . 159
Note on Helichrysum fasciculatum Buchanan. Proceedings, Part I . . . . 24
Chilton, C. — Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea . . . . 128
Cockayne, L. —
Observations concerning Evolution, derived from Ecological Studies in New
Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats (Part VII) . . . . 51
Descriptions of some New Species of New Zealand Plants. Proceedings,
Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Cooke, F. W. — Observations on Salicornia australis . . . . . . . . 349
Cotton, C. A. —
Notes on Wellington Physiography . . . . . . . . . . 245
Typical Sections showing the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka
Pass Stone at Weka Pass. Abstract in Proceedings, Part III . . 84
Cottrell, A. J. — Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata Sowerby . . . . 374
Denham, H. G. — The Action of Alkyl Iodides on Copper-oxide. Proceedings,
Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Drummond, J. — The Method of snaring Buds used by the Maoris, with Notes on
a Bird known to the Maoris as " Tiaka." Abstract in Proceedings,
Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
PIasterfield, T. H. (with Clara Millicent Taylor). — The Interaction of Iron
with the Higher Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . . . 301
Fathers, H. T. M. — Note on the Composition of Nitric Acid . . . . . . 299
Gatexby, J. B. — Notes on Nest, Life-history, and Habits of Migas distinctus, a
New Zealand Trapdoor Spider . . . . . . . . . . 234
Harrison, L. (with Johnston, T. H.). — On a Collection of Mallophaga from the
Kermadecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Hilgendorf, F. W. — Fluctuations in the Level of the Water in some Artesian
Wells in the Christchurch Area . . . . . . . . . . 142
4 — Proceedings, pt. iii.
•460 Index.
PAGE
Hogben, G. — Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific in 1910 . . . . 139
Hogben, G. (with Skey, H. F.). — Records of Milne Seismographs, 1906-1911 . . 441
Howes, G. — New Species of Lepidoptera, with Notes on the Larvae and Pupae
of some New Zealand Butterflies . . . . . . . . . . 203
Ironside, Anne P. — The Anatomical Structure of the New Zealand Piperaceae . . 339
Johnston, T. H. (with Harrison, L.). — On a Collection of Mallophaga from the
Kermadecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Kirk, H. B. — Some Features of the Circulatory System of Heptatrema, cirrata
Forster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Laby, T. H. (with Burbidge, P. W.). — The Nature of Gamma Rays. Proceed-
ings, Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Laing, R. M. — Some Notes on the Botany of the Spenser Mountains, with a List
of the Species collected . . . . . . . . . . 60
Longstaef, G. B. — On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand . . 108
Malcolm, J. — The Composition of some New Zealand Foodstuffs . . . . 265
Marshall, P. — Nephelinite Rocks in New Zealand . . . . . . . . 304
Meyrick, E. —
A Revision of the Classification of the New Zealand Caradrinina . . . . 88
Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . . . . . ..117
Oliver, W. R. B.—
List of Lichens and Fungi collected in the Kermadec Islands in 1908 . . 86
The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the
Kermadec Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Petrie, D. —
Descriptions of New Native Species of Phanerogams . . . . 179
On Danthonia nuda and Triodia Thomsoni . . . . . . 188
Phtlpott, A. — Descriptions of Three New Species of Lepidoph ra .. . . 115
Poppelwell, D. L. — Notes on the Plant Covering of Codfish Island and the
Rugged Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Prout, L. B. — Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae, with
a Description of a New Species. Proceedings, Part II . . 52
RiGG, T.— Montan Wax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Skey, H. F. (with Hogben, G. ).-* Records of Milne Seismographs, 1906-1911 . . 441
Speight, R. — A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara G*orge . . 221
Taylor, Clara Millicent (with Easterfield, T. H.). — The Interaction of Iron
with the Higher Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . . . 301
Tillyard, R. J. — Notes on some Dragon-flies from the Kermadec Islands . . 126
Waits, E. R.—
Notes on New Zealand Fishes : No. 2 . . . . . . . . 194
Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands. Proceedings, Part I 28
Wild, L. J.— The Geology of the Bluff, New Zealand. . . . . . . . 317
John Mackay, Government Printer, Wellington. — 1912.
Registered for transmission by post as a Magazine.
VA* TRANSACTIONS
AND
PEOCEEDINGS
OF THK
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
1911
VOL. XLIY
(New Issue)
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
Issued 10th June. Iyl2
WELLINGTON, N.Z.
JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
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PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
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The Proceedings for the year 1909 and subsequent years are published
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MANGAREVA DICTIONARY. By E. Tregeab. 1899 ..010
LIBRARY CATALOGUE of the Joint Libraries of the
Geological Survey, the Museum, New Zealand Institute,
and the Wellington Philosophical Society.
1st edition, 1890. (Out of print.)
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CATALOGUE OP THE CARTER COLLECTION OP
NEW ZEALAND BOOKS.
Catalogue and three Supplements. (Oat of print.)
MANUAL OP THE NEW ZEALAND COLEOPTERA.
By Major Bkoun.
Part 1, 1880; Part 2, 1881; Part 3, 1886; Pari 4. 1886; Part 5,
1893 ; Part 6, 1893 ; Part 7. 1893
BULLETIN No. 1. New Genera and Species of j
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110
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Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11